Sex differences in eye gaze and symbolic cueing of attention.

Observing a face with averted eyes results in a reflexive shift of attention to the gazed-at location. Here we present results that show that this effect is weaker in males than in females (Experiment 1). This result is predicted by the 'extreme male brain' theory of autism (Baron-Cohen, 2003), which suggests that males in the normal population should display more autism-like traits than females (e.g., poor joint attention). Indeed, participants' scores on the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Stott, Bolton, & Goodyear, 2001) negatively correlated with cueing magnitude. Furthermore, exogenous orienting did not differ between the sexes in two peripheral cueing experiments (Experiments 2a and 2b). However, a final experiment showed that using nonpredictive arrows instead of eyes as a central cue also revealed a large gender difference. This demonstrates that reduced orienting from central cues in males generalizes beyond gaze cues. These results show that while peripheral cueing is equivalent in the male and female brains, the attention systems of the two sexes treat noninformative symbolic cues very differently.     

Confirmation of correlation between brain nerve conduction velocity and intelligence level in normal adults

In 1992, Reed and Jensen [Intelligence 16 (1992) 259–272] reported a positive correlation (.26; p=.002; .37 after correcting for restricted intelligence range) between a brain nerve conduction velocity (NCV) and intelligence level in 147 normal male students. In the first follow-up of their study, we report on a study using similar NCV methodologies, but testing both male and female students and using more extensive measures of cognitive abilities. One-hundred eighty-six males and 201 females, aged 18–25 years, were tested in three different NCV conditions and with nine cognitive tests, including Raven Progressive Matrices as used by Reed and Jensen. None of the 27 independent correlations in either the males or in the females are significant at Bonferroni-corrected probability levels, but 25 of 27 correlations in males and 20 of 27 correlations in females have positive signs. The exact binomial probabilities for these results are 5.6×10⁻⁶ and .002, respectively. We discuss possible reasons for the differences between the results of Reed and Jensen and our results. We also find that males have four percent faster NCVs than females with each of the three test conditions, probably due to their faster increase of white matter in the brain during adolescence.     

The multifactor offender readiness model

There has been a resurgence of interest in the rehabilitation of offenders. Research has consistently shown that rehabilitation programs for offenders, when they adhere to general principles of program design and delivery, will achieve significant reductions in recidivism. In this paper, we suggest that even greater reductions in recidivism can be achieved when readiness is addressed at the level of the individual offender, the program, and the context. A comprehensive understanding of readiness allows for fuller engagement in treatment, thus increasing probability of good treatment outcomes. We describe person, program, and context factors in a model of offender treatment readiness and discuss implications of the model for both assessment of offenders and for modification of low readiness.     

But Affirmative Action hurts Us! Race-related beliefs shape perceptions of White disadvantage and policy unfairness

Drawing on social identity theory, we examine how Whites’ race-related beliefs drive their reactions to race-based Affirmative Action Policies (AAPs). Across laboratory and field settings, we find that Whites with relatively high modern racism (MR) or collective relative deprivation (CRD) beliefs perceive greater White disadvantage in organizations that have race-based AAPs, than in organizations that do not. Alternatively, race-based AAPs do not lead to perceptions of White disadvantage among Whites with relatively low MR and CRD beliefs. We also find that White disadvantage mediates the relationship between the combined effects of race-based AAPs, MR beliefs, and CRD beliefs and the perceived fairness of the organization’s selection and promotion policies. Our findings suggest that race-based AAPs do not necessarily lead to perceptions of White disadvantage, but are contingent upon the interpretive lens of Whites’ MR and CRD beliefs, and also offer practical insights for preventing negative reactions to race-based AAPs.     

Does visual short-term memory have a high-capacity stage?

Visual short-term memory (VSTM) has long been considered a durable, limited-capacity system for the brief retention of visual information. However, a recent work by Sligte et al. (Plos One 3:e1699, 2008) reported that, relatively early after the removal of a memory array, a cue allowed participants to access a fragile, high-capacity stage of VSTM that is distinct from iconic memory. In the present study, we examined whether this stage division is warranted by attempting to corroborate the existence of an early, high-capacity form of VSTM. The results of four experiments did not support Sligte et al.’s claim, since we did not obtain evidence for VSTM retention that exceeded traditional estimates of capacity. However, performance approaching that observed in Sligte et al. can be achieved through extensive practice, providing a clear explanation for their findings. Our evidence favors the standard view of VSTM as a limited-capacity system that maintains a few object representations in a relatively durable form.     

Risking safety or safely risking? Healthcare professionals' understanding of risk-taking in everyday work

Current patient safety orthodoxy in the United Kingdom and beyond has tended to treat risk as something that should be assessed and estimated quantitatively. While this offers benefits to research and practice, there are added benefits from paying closer scrutiny to the underlying causes that influence such adverse events in healthcare. In this article, risk is seen as something subjective, or rather as part of the "lived experiences" of healthcare professionals. Results from this study indicate that the vast majority of healthcare professionals we interviewed understand risk as something intrinsic to healthcare; another variable one needs to prepare for. Risks were generally described in terms of acceptable versus unacceptable and avoidable versus unavoidable. In terms of identifying and dealing with risk, we found indications that the decision-making processes healthcare professionals use vary according to their training and experience. We suggest that the further examination of the apparent differences that exist in the perceptual awareness of risk can advance our knowledge on the possible impact they could have upon patient safety in the wider spectrum.     

Developmental continuity? Crawling,cruising, and walking

This research examined developmental continuity between "cruising" (moving sideways holding onto furniture for support) and walking. Because cruising and walking involve locomotion in an upright posture, researchers have assumed that cruising is functionally related to walking. Study 1 showed that most infants crawl and cruise concurrently prior to walking, amassing several weeks of experience with both skills. Study 2 showed that cruising infants perceive affordances for locomotion over an adjustable gap in a handrail used for manual support, but despite weeks of cruising experience, cruisers are largely oblivious to the dangers of gaps in the floor beneath their feet. Study 3 replicated the floor-gap findings for infants taking their first independent walking steps, and showed that new walkers also misperceive affordances for locomoting between gaps in a handrail. The findings suggest that weeks of cruising do not teach infants a basic fact about walking: the necessity of a floor to support their body. Moreover, this research demonstrated that developmental milestones that are temporally contiguous and structurally similar might have important functional discontinuities.     

Interracial contact and changes in the racial attitudes of white college students

College campuses are among the most racially diverse settings in our segregated society. For many students, especially non-Hispanic whites, college represents the first time they have come into significant contact with members of other groups. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Freshmen, this paper explores the effects of campus diversity and various types of interracial contact on the racial and ethnic attitudes of white students over the course of four years in college. The findings are largely consistent with the contact hypothesis, particularly with respect to changes in attitudes towards blacks. White students who report having a close friend who is black and those who have dated or had a romantic partner who is black express less social distance towards blacks in their senior year, as do white students who were involved in extracurricular activities in which blacks are the majority. Participating in extracurricular activities dominated by blacks is also associated with more positive views of the impact of affirmative action on academic standards expressed as students were leaving college. Although there is evidence that both stereotypes and social distance towards groups are mitigated by intergroup contact, stereotypes appeared to be somewhat more resistant to change. The findings suggest that institutions should continue efforts to diversify their student populations, and also promote involvement in extracurricular activities for students from all groups.     

Frühkindlicher Autismus

Eine kurze Geschichte der Diagnose des frühkindlichen Autismus leitet diesen übersichtsartikelein. Die autistische St?rung zeichnet sich durch drei Hauptsymptomgruppen aus: St?rung der sozialen Interaktion, St?rung der Kommunikation, und stereotype, eingeschr?nkte Verhaltensmuster und Interessen. Aktuelle Kenntnisse im Bereich der ?tiopathogenese wurden kurz zusammengefasst. Diagnostische und differenzialdiagnostische Grundlagen werden diskutiert. Ein kurzer überblick der Pharmakotherapie des Autismus schlie?t die übersicht.