Knowing without knowing: implicit cognition and the minds of infants and animals / Saber sin saber: la cognición implícita y las mentes de niños pequeños y animales

The main aim of this paper is to highlight the need to address the conceptual problem of ‘implicit knowledge’ or ‘implicit cognition’ — a notion especially important in the study of the nonverbal minds of animals and infants. We review some uses of the term ‘implicit’ in psychology and allied disciplines, and conclude that conceptual clarification of this notion is not only lacking, but largely avoided and reduced to a methodological problem. We propose that this elusive notion is central in the study not only of animal and infant minds, but also the human adult mind. Some promising approaches in developmental and evolutionary psychology towards innovative conceptualization of implicit knowledge remain conceptually underdeveloped and in need of reconsideration and re-elaboration. We conclude by suggesting that the challenge of implicit cognition and nonverbal minds will only be solved through a concerted interdisciplinary approach between psychology and other disciplines.     

Use of social networking sites and associations with skin tone dissatisfaction,sun exposure,and sun protection in a sample of Australian adolescents

Objective: Previous research has indicated that greater exposure to traditional media (i.e. television, film, and print) predicted skin cancer risk factors in adolescents; however, the relationship between social media usage and these outcomes remains unexplored. We examined whether social networking site (SNS) usage, and the particular manner of this use, was associated with skin tone dissatisfaction, sun exposure and sun protection among Australian adolescents. We also explored sex differences in SNS usage related to tanning.

Method: A total of 1856 South Australian secondary school students completed the Australian School Students Alcohol and Drug 2014 survey. SNS usage related to tanning comprised posting pictures, posting text, viewing pictures, viewing text and liking or sharing posts.

Results: Adolescents spent 214.56 minutes, on average, per day using SNSs. Behaviours related to tanning that involved pictures (i.e. viewing pictures, posting pictures, and liking or sharing content) were significantly associated with more skin tone dissatisfaction, more sun exposure and less sun protection. Females performed all SNS-linked behaviours more frequently than did males, with the exception of posting text.

Conclusion: Australian adolescents spend a considerable amount of time using SNSs, and their behaviours related to tanning on these SNSs are significantly associated with skin cancer risk factors.     

Clients’ perceptions of personal psychotherapy or counselling for therapists

The purpose of this study was to examine clients’ opinions of therapists’ personal use of psychotherapy or counselling. Participants in this study, a nationwide sample of clients recruited through Amazon’s MTurk system, were asked to complete an online survey assessing their attitudes towards treatment use by therapists as well as their general attitudes towards psychological help-seeking and perceptions of stigma (social and self) with psychological treatments. In this study, we found that clients generally had positive views about therapists’ personal use of psychotherapy or counselling. Although overall positive attitudes were found, the results from repeated measures ANOVAs indicated that attitudes depended somewhat on whether the therapist had sought out treatment as part of a training requirement for self-enrichment, or for the treatment of a psychological problem. In addition, participating clients were less supportive of therapists disclosing a treatment use history with their clients. Regression analyses also indicated that attitudes towards treatment use by therapists were significantly predicted by general help-seeking attitudes and perceptions of stigma (social and self), but attitudes towards disclosure were not. The findings from this study have important implications regarding therapist treatment use and disclosure in practice.     

Using the Gamma Generalized Linear Model for Modeling Continuous,Skewed and Heteroscedastic Outcomes in Psychology

Some researchers in psychology have ordinarily relied on traditional linear models when assessing the relationship between predictor(s) and a continuous outcome, even when the assumptions of the traditional model (e.g., normality, homoscedasticity) are not satisfied. Of those who abandon the traditional linear model, some opt for robust versions of the ANOVA and regression statistics that usually focus on relationships for the typical or average case instead of trying to model relationships for the full range of relevant cases. Generalized linear models, on the other hand, model the relationships among variables using all available and relevant data and can be appropriate under certain conditions of non-normality and heteroscedasticity. In this paper, we summarize the advantages and limitations of using generalized linear models with continuous outcomes and provide two simplified examples that highlight the methodology involved in selecting, comparing, and interpreting models for positively skewed outcomes and certain heteroscedastic relationships.     

The Dynamics of a Genetic Counseling Peer Supervision Group

Supervision is a practice that is utilized by a variety of practitioners to hone their counseling skills. Genetic counselors have embraced the supervision process, and some seek out supervision in a group setting with peers. Researchers have described the structure and content of genetic counseling peer supervision groups, and provided evidence for the benefits of seeking peer supervision. This study aimed to describe the interpersonal aspects of one genetic counseling peer supervision group, including personality traits and group dynamics, and how those factors influenced our experiences within the group. We also describe how the process of evaluating these factors impacted us individually and collectively. There was consensus that the group was a safe and trusting one, which was united by similar goals and mutual respect. Members reported gaining insights about how their own personality functioned within the group milieu, and also how the group setting impacted them. Based on our experiences, we recommend that other peer supervision groups consider similar self-evaluations on a periodic basis, both to enhance group functioning and to allow for increased self-awareness and professional growth.     

Self-focused attention and safety behaviors across group therapies for social anxiety disorder

Background: Self-focused attention (SFA) and safety behaviors are two variables implicated in the maintenance of social anxiety disorder (SAD).

Design: The present study examined SFA and safety behaviors across two therapies for SAD, cognitive behavioral group therapy (CBGT) and mindfulness and acceptance-based group therapy (MAGT).

Method: Participants with symptoms meeting criteria for SAD (N?=?137) were randomly assigned to the 12-week-treatment groups (n?=?53 for each condition) or a waitlist control (n?=?31). Variables were assessed at baseline, midtreatment, posttreatment, and a 3-month follow-up.

Results: Both treatment conditions reported significantly lower SFA and safety behaviors compared to control, but did not differ from one another at posttreatment. Mediation analyses supported the following models: (1) safety behaviors mediating the relationship between SFA and social anxiety, and (2) SFA mediating the relationship between safety behaviors and social anxiety. These models were supported for both treatment groups.

Conclusions: Both treatments may have the potential to reduce the SFA and safety behaviors that serve to maintain SAD.     

Negative beliefs about low back pain are associated with persistent high intensity low back pain

While previous cross-sectional studies have found that negative beliefs about low back pain are associated with pain intensity, the relationship between back beliefs and persistent low back pain is not well understood. This cohort study aimed to examine the role of back beliefs in persistent low back pain in community-based individuals. A hundred and ninety-two participants from a previous musculoskeletal health study were invited to take part in a two-year follow-up study. Beliefs about back pain were assessed by the Back Beliefs Questionnaire (BBQ) at baseline and low back pain intensity was measured by the Chronic Pain Grade Questionnaire at baseline and follow-up. Of the 150 respondents (78.1%), 16 (10.7%) reported persistent high intensity low back pain, 12 (8.0%) developed high intensity low back pain, in 16 (10.7%) their high intensity low back pain resolved and 106 (70.7%) experienced no high intensity low back pain. While participants were generally positive about low back pain (BBQ mean (SD) = 30.2 (6.4)), those with persistent high intensity pain reported greater negativity (BBQ mean (SD) = 22.6 (4.9)). Negative beliefs about back pain were associated with persistent high intensity low back pain after adjusting for confounders (M (SE) = 23.5 (1.6) vs. >30.1 (1.7), p < .001). This study found negative back beliefs were associated with persistent high intensity low back pain over 2 years in community-based individuals. While further longitudinal studies are required, these findings suggest that targeting beliefs in programs designed to treat and prevent persistent high intensity low back pain may be important.