Categories and Levels of Reality

The discussion of the relation of levels of reality to categories is important because categories have often been interpreted as constituting levels of reality. This article explores whether this view is correct, and argues it is not. Categories as such should not be understood to constitute levels of reality, although particular categories may. The article begins with a discussion of levels of reality and then turns to specific questions about categories and how they are related to these levels.     

A paradox for significant freedom

International Journal for Philosophy of Religion -     

Reported exposure and emotional reactivity to daily stressors: the roles of adult age and global perceived stress

A central goal of daily stress research is to identify resilience and vulnerability factors associated with exposure and reactivity to daily stressors. The present study examined how age differences and global perceptions of stress relate to exposure and emotional reactivity to daily stressors. Sixty-seven younger (M age = 20) and 116 older (M age = 80) adults completed a daily stress diary and measures of positive and negative affect on 6 days over a 14-day period. Participants also completed a measure of global perceived stress. Results revealed that reported exposure to daily stressors is reduced in old age but that emotional reactivity to daily stressors did not differ between younger and older adults. Global perceived stress was associated with greater reported exposure to daily stressors in older adults and greater stress-related increases in negative affect in younger adults. Furthermore, across days on which daily stressors were reported, intraindividual variability in the number and severity of stressors reported was associated with increased negative affect, but only among younger adults.     

Critical role of the 65-kDa isoform of glutamic acid decarboxylase in consolidation and generalization of Pavlovian fear memory

Evidence suggests that plasticity of the amygdalar and hippocampal GABAergic system is critical for fear memory formation. In this study we investigated in wild-type and genetically manipulated mice the role of the activity-dependent 65-kDa isozyme of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65) in the consolidation and generalization of conditioned fear. First, we demonstrate a transient reduction of GAD65 gene expression in the dorsal hippocampus (6 h post training) and in the basolateral complex of the amygdala (24 h post training) during distinct phases of fear memory consolidation. Second, we show that targeted ablation of the GAD65 gene in Gad65(-/-) mice results in a pronounced context-independent, intramodal generalization of auditory fear memory during long-term (24 h or 14 d) but not short-term (30 min) memory retrieval. The temporal specificity of both gene regulation and memory deficits in Gad65 mutant mice suggests that GAD65-mediated GABA synthesis is critical for the consolidation of stimulus-specific fear memory. This function appears to involve a modulation of neural activity patterns in the amygdalo-hippocampal pathway as indicated by a reduction in theta frequency synchronization between the amygdala and hippocampus of Gad65(-/-) mice during the expression of generalized fear memory.     

Validation of the Portuguese emotion awareness questionnaire for children and adolescents

This study examined the construct and concurrent validity of the Portuguese version of the Emotion Awareness Questionnaire (EAQ) in 302 children and adolescents (mean age 13 years old). The EAQ is a self-report questionnaire that allows for analysis of how youth experience and understand their own and others’ emotions. Participants completed the EAQ along with questionnaires for Worry and Somatic Complaints. Results confirmed the expected six-factor structure, good psychometric properties, and good concurrent validity. The EAQ is a reliable questionnaire, suitable for examining emotion awareness in Portugal.     

Derived false memories using a respondent‐type (ReT) procedure

The present investigation used a respondent‐type (ReT) training procedure to generate derived false memories. A one‐to‐many ReT training procedure was implemented in order to establish two stimulus equivalence classes, each consisting of one shape and 24 random words (i.e., Class 1 and Class 2). A partial test for stimulus equivalence with a subset of stimuli from each class followed. Failing an equivalence test resulted in additional ReT training and equivalence testing on new subsets of stimuli. After passing an equivalence test, participants were presented with 12 study‐list words from Class 1 for memorization, followed by a distraction task. Finally, free recall and recognition tests for the study‐list words were implemented. False recall and false recognition were more frequent for nonstudied Class 1 words than for nonstudied Class 2 words. These derived false‐memory effects were more pronounced among those participants exhibiting more training and testing cycles and higher accuracy on stimulus equivalence tests. Furthermore, false recall and false remembering of nonstudied Class 1 words were more frequent for words that had been equivalence‐tested than for words that had not been equivalence‐tested. These results show how responses to contiguous stimuli could produce derived false memories and also highlight the role played by the equivalence test in increasing their emergence.     

Testing the properties of the triarchic model of psychopathy in a community sample: Self‐reported trait aggression and drug consumption associations

The triarchic model of psychopathy encompasses different conceptions of psychopathic personality characterized by three phenotypic components: boldness, disinhibition, and meanness. Psychopathy is a complex construct at both emotional and behavioral level. The aim of this study was to determine the core elements of psychopathic personality in a community sample and analyze the relation between these elements and other personality traits such as aggression, and certain specific behavioral manifestations such as substance use. The study sample comprised 1,159 participants aged between 17 and 74 years, who were administered the Triarchic Psychopathy Questionnaire, the Impulsive‐Premeditated Aggression Scale, and the Aggression Questionnaire. The results show that the constructs of meanness and disinhibition are more highly associated with different forms of both impulsive and premeditated aggression. Furthermore, men scored higher on all three components of the triarchic model compared to women. Finally, higher substance use (tobacco and drugs) was associated with higher scores in meanness, boldness, and disinhibition. These findings demonstrate the importance of assessing psychopathy in a community sample, and the detection of possible risk factors for the disorder.     

Transitioning from recruit to officer: An investigation of how stress appraisal and coping influence work engagement

This study investigated stress, coping, and work engagement among Portuguese police officers while undergoing academy training and then 1 year later, when on duty. It was hypothesized that stress appraisal and coping preferences predicted engagement. Additionally, in order to test a full cross‐lagged prediction model, it was hypothesized that stress, coping, and engagement in recruits predicted these variables later when working as police officers. Structural equation modeling was used to test the research hypotheses. Results suggest that coping and stress appraisals do not seem to be strong predictors of work engagement among recruits and police officers on duty. With the exception of self‐blame, that seems to be a strong predictor of work engagement among police officers on duty. These results highlight the need to investigate other potential variables such as working conditions that may better explain work engagement. Considering the positive influence of engagement on health, wellbeing, and performance of police recruits and officers future applied and theoretical implications are discussed.     

Genetic and environmental effects on daily life stressors: more evidence for greater variation in later life

People vary in the occurrence and perceived severity of stressors experienced in their daily lives. In the current study, the authors examined the extent to which individual differences in these relatively minor occurrences are determined by genetic endowment as well as environmental influences and how these effects vary by age. Identical (n-sub(pairs) = 111) and fraternal (n-sub(pairs) = 99) twin adults ranging from 25 to 73 years old reported the occurrence and severity of their daily stressors on 8 consecutive evenings. Both genetic and unique environmental effects accounted for the variance in stressor occurrence, whereas shared family and unique environmental effects accounted for the variance in the perceived severity of these stressors. In addition, the influence of unique environment on perceived stress exerted a stronger influence among the older adults than the younger adults.     

Statutory reform is associated with improved court practice: results of a tri-state comparison

PURPOSE: This study investigates the impact of statutory reform in adult guardianship on court practice. METHODS: Case files for 298 cases of adult guardianship were reviewed in three states with varying degrees of statutory reform: MA (no reform), PA (major amendments in 1992), and CO (full re-enactment of statute per UGPPA in 2000). Five court practices associated with progressive statutory reform were studied: (1) diversion to less restrictive alternatives; (2) minimal and appropriate use of emergency procedures; (3) presence of the alleged incapacitated person at the hearing; (4) use of functional evaluation; (5) use of limited orders. RESULTS: CO more frequently utilized all five practices, whereas PA used diversion to less restrictive alternatives and less frequent emergency procedures, but not other practices. MA files rarely showed evidence for use of any of these reforms. IMPLICATIONS: Statutory reform may improve court practice. More study of the effects of reform on court practices, and the vulnerable adults served by these courts, is needed.