Strengthening the validity of population-based suicide rate comparisons: an illustration using U.S. military and civilian data

The objectives of this study were to generate precise estimates of suicide rates in the military while controlling for factors contributing to rate variability such as demographic differences and classification bias, and to develop a simple methodology for the determination of statistically derived thresholds for detecting significant rate changes. Suicide rate estimates were calculated for the military population and each service branch over 11 years, directly standardized to the 2000 U.S. population. Military rates were highly comparable across branches and were approximately 20% lower than the civilian rate. Direct adjustment essentially controlled for the demographic confounds in this sample. Applying the Poisson-based method, we demonstrate that suicide rate fluctuations as large as 20-40% in any year may be attributed to random error.     

Loss aversion is an affective forecasting error

Loss aversion occurs because people expect losses to have greater hedonic impact than gains of equal magnitude. In two studies, people predicted that losses in a gambling task would have greater hedonic impact than would gains of equal magnitude, but when people actually gambled, losses did not have as much of an emotional impact as they predicted. People overestimated the hedonic impact of losses because they underestimated their tendency to rationalize losses and overestimated their tendency to dwell on losses. The asymmetrical impact of losses and gains was thus more a property of affective forecasts than a property of affective experience.     

Cognitive decline in old age: separating retest effects from the effects of growing older

Repeated administration of cognitive tests improves test performance, making it difficult for researchers to gauge the true extent of age-related cognitive decline. The authors examined this issue using data from the Rush Religious Orders Study and linear mixed-effects models. At annual intervals for up to 8 years, more than 800 older Catholic clergy members completed the same set of 19 cognitive tests from which previously established composite measures of cognitive domains were derived. Retest effects on some measures were substantial and continued to accumulate even after 8 annual test readministrations, but effects on other measures were minimal. Across cognitive measures, retest effects were not related to age, sex, or education. Individual differences in retest effects were substantial but not consistent across cognitive measures. The results suggest that retest-based improvement in cognitive test performance can be substantial and persistent.     

Challenges using motivational interviewing as an adjunct to exposure therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder

Exposure and response prevention (EX/RP) is an efficacious treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). However, patients often do not adhere fully to EX/RP procedures. Motivational interviewing (MI) has been shown to improve treatment adherence in other disorders. This pilot study used a randomized controlled design to examine whether MI can be successfully added to EX/RP and whether this intervention (EX/RP + MI) could improve patient adherence to between-session EX/RP procedures relative to EX/RP alone. Thirty adults with OCD were randomized to 18 sessions of EX/RP or EX/RP + MI. Therapists rated patient adherence at each exposure session. Independent evaluators assessed change in OCD and depressive symptoms, and patients completed self-report measures of readiness for change and quality of life. The two treatment conditions differed in degree of congruence with MI but not in conduct of EX/RP procedures. Both groups experienced clinically significant improvement in OCD symptoms, without significant group differences in patient adherence. There are several possible reasons why EX/RP + MI had no effect on patient adherence compared to standard EX/RP, each of which has important implications for the design of future MI studies in OCD. We recommend that MI be further evaluated in OCD by exploring alternative modes of delivery and by focusing on patients less ready for change than the current sample.     

Inaccurate self-knowledge formation as a result of automatic behavior

Four studies tested a post-priming misattribution process whereby a primed goal automatically influences people's behavior, but because people are unaware of that influence, they misattribute their behavior to some other internal state. People who were primed with a goal were more likely to choose an activity that was relevant to that goal, but did not recognize that the prime had influenced their choices. Instead, people used more accessible and plausible reasons to explain their behavior. The goals were seeking romantic interaction (Studies 1 and 2), helping (Study 3) and earning money (Study 4). People made choices related to these goals but misattributed the choices to temporary preferences (Studies 1 and 3) and more permanent dispositions (Studies 2 and 4). The misattribution had downstream effects, leading to choice behavior consistent with the erroneous self-knowledge. We suggest that automatic behavior can lead to a confabulated self-knowledge with behavioral consequences.     

Implementation Quality and Positive Experiences in After-School Programs

Data collected during an evaluation of a multi-site trial of an enhanced after-school program were used to relate quality of program implementation to student experiences after school. The enhanced after-school program incorporated a drug use and violence prevention component that was shown to be effective in previous research. Building on Durlak and Dupre’s (Am J Community Psychol 41:327–350, 2008) dimensions of implementation, we assessed the level of dosage, quality of management and climate, participant responsiveness, and staffing quality achieved at the five program sites. We evaluated how these characteristics co-varied with self-reported positive experiences after-school. The study illustrates how multiple dimensions of program implementation can be measured, and shows that some but not all dimensions of implementation are related to the quality of student after-school experiences. Measures of quality of management and climate, participant responsiveness, and staffing stability were most clearly associated with youth experiences. The importance of measuring multiple dimensions of program implementation in intervention research is discussed.     

The creativity quotient: An objective scoring of ideational fluency

A classical test for accessing the potential creativity of an individual is based on ideational fluency, where a person is asked to generate all possible uses for a familiar item like a piece of paper. In scoring the results, it is intuitive that the suggested uses should not be weighted equally. Those suggested in radically different categories are “worth more”; than those suggested within the same category only. We used information theory to derive a simple mathematical expression for a more objective measure of ideational fluency. We call this the creativity quotient (CQ). This innovative measure was examined using a small sample of participants, and is illustrated by the responses of two typical individuals from an ideational fluency task. The CQ accounts for the number of ideas (fluency), plus the number of categories (flexibility). Ongoing research will examine the independence of CQ from established measures of intelligence and personality.     

Investigating the Relationship Between Achievement Goals and Process Goals in Rugby Union Players

The present study investigated the relationship between achievement goal orientations and process goals in a sample of rugby union players. Participants were aged 14–45 years (M + SD: 24.31 + 6.02) and ranged from Club to National level. There were 78 males and 72 females with a mean of 9.17 years experience. Achievement goals were measured using an instrument developed by Harwood, Wilson, and Hardy (2002) Miller, M. B. 1995. Coefficient alpha: A basic introduction from the perspectives of classical test theory and structural equation modelling. Structural Equation Modelling, 2: 255–273. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] that assesses Self-Directed Task, Self-Directed Ego, Social Approval Task, and Social Approval Ego Goal Orientations. Process goals were measured using a slightly adapted version of an instrument developed by Harwood (1997) Harwood, C. G. 1997. Pre-competition achievement goals within young sports performers, Unpublished PhD Thesis UK: Loughborough University.  [Google Scholar]. Self-Directed Task (7), Self-Directed Ego (5), Social Approval Task (6), and Social Approval Ego (2) had varying numbers of significant positive correlations with process goal variables. Stepwise regression analysis revealed that Self-Directed Task was the sole significant predictor for six of the seven process goal variables (β = .30 to .60). Those significant others who influence the achievement context should encourage high levels of Self-Directed Task and discourage high levels of Social Approval Ego goal orientation to promote a focus upon the processes of performance.     

Are Human Rights Redundant in the Ethical Codes of Psychologists?

The codes of ethics and conduct of a number of psychology bodies explicitly refer to human rights, and the American Psychological Association recently expanded the use of the construct when it amended standard 1.02 of the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. What is unclear is how these references to human rights should be interpreted. In this article I examine the historical development of human rights and associated constructs and the contemporary meaning of human rights. As human rights are generally associated with law, morality, or religion, I consider to which of forms of these references most likely refer. I conclude that these references in ethical codes are redundant and that it would be preferable not to refer to human rights in codes. Instead, the profession should acknowledge human rights as a separate and complimentary norm system that governs the behavior of psychologists and should ensure that they have adequate knowledge of human rights and encourage them to promote human rights.