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191.
Ambiguous figures are a special class of images that can give rise to multiple interpretations. Traditionally, switching between the possible interpretations of an ambiguous figure, or reversing one's interpretation, has been attributed either to top-down or to bottom-up processes (e.g. attributed to having knowledge of the nature of the ambiguity, or to a form of neuronal fatigue). Here we present evidence that is incompatible with both forms of explanations. Observers aged 5-9 years can reverse ambiguous figures when uninformed about the ambiguity, negating purely top-down explanations. Further, those children who make these 'spontaneous' reversals are more likely to succeed on a high-order theory-of-mind task, negating purely bottom-up explanations. 相似文献
192.
Reiheld A 《The American journal of bioethics : AJOB》2006,6(5):25-6; discussion W30-2
193.
Older adults recalled memories from each decade of life. Memories were classified in terms of the psychosocial stages to which their content corresponded. For the majority of memories it was found that age at encoding corresponded to when specific psychosocial stages would have been most likely to have occurred. In a second experiment older adults recalled memories to cues drawn from psychosocial stages and the same pattern of findings was observed. These findings demonstrate that the goals of the self play a major role in both the encoding and accessibility of autobiographical memories, and they also provide support for Erikson's psychosocial theory of development (1950, 1997). 相似文献
194.
The authors outline a cognitive and computational account of causal learning in children. They propose that children use specialized cognitive systems that allow them to recover an accurate "causal map" of the world: an abstract, coherent, learned representation of the causal relations among events. This kind of knowledge can be perspicuously understood in terms of the formalism of directed graphical causal models, or Bayes nets. Children's causal learning and inference may involve computations similar to those for learning causal Bayes nets and for predicting with them. Experimental results suggest that 2- to 4-year-old children construct new causal maps and that their learning is consistent with the Bayes net formalism. 相似文献
195.
This paper, based on naturalistic data, describes the acquisitional course and use of the articles a and the in young English-speaking children (18-61 months), with special emphasis on the role of individual variation. A growth modeling approach to the data reveals that children's individual acquisition schedules are similar in trend, but vary in the rate at which they omit determiners at a given point of time. This picture suggests that an analysis that presumes homogeneous development will seriously misrepresent the fluctuations between and within individuals. Interestingly, this variation does not reflect a variation in children's abilities to use determiners correctly-irrespective of the rate in which they used determiners, children seldom used determiners incorrectly. The analysis also reveals that children's optional omission of determiners in obligatory contexts, beginning at 18 months of age, gradually decreases on average by 3-4% a month until 36 months of age, and thereafter plunges by a factor of 10 to an average of 0.3% per month. At 36 month of age the majority of children use determiners at a near-mastery level (Brown, 1973). These findings provide a useful framework for theorizing about possible mechanisms underlying the nature of early language development pre- and post-36 months of age. 相似文献
196.
The coding of time in growth curve models has important implications for the interpretation of the resulting model that are sometimes not transparent. The authors develop a general framework that includes predictors of growth curve components to illustrate how parameter estimates and their standard errors are exactly determined as a function of receding time in growth curve models. Linear and quadratic growth model examples are provided, and the interpretation of estimates given a particular coding of time is illustrated. How and why the precision and statistical power of predictors of lower order growth curve components changes over time is illustrated and discussed. Recommendations include coding time to produce readily interpretable estimates and graphing lower order effects across time with appropriate confidence intervals to help illustrate and understand the growth process. 相似文献
197.
Research indicates that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) contributes to working memory and executive control, whereas
the ventral frontal cortex (VFC) contributes to affective and motivational processing. Few studies have examined both the
functional specificity and the integration of these regions. We did so using fMRI and a verbal working memory task in which
visual cues indicated whether recall performance on an upcoming trial would be linked to a monetary reward. On the basis of
prior findings obtained in delayed response tasks performed by nonhuman primates, we hypothesized that (1) VFC would show
an increase only in response to a cue indicating potential for a monetary reward; (2) DLPFC would show sustained activity
across a delay interval for all trials, though activity in rewarded trials would be enhanced; and (3) regions engaged in speech-based
rehearsal would be relatively insensitive to monetary incentive. Our hypotheses about DLPFC and rehearsal-related regions
were confirmed. In VFC regions, we failed to observe statistically significant effects of reward when the cue or delay epochs
of the task were examined in isolation. However, an unexpected and significant deactivation was observed in VFC during the
delay epoch; furthermore, a post hoc voxelwise analysis indicated a complex interaction between (1) the cue and delay epochs
of the task and (2) the reward value of the trials. The pattern of activation and deactivation across trial types suggests
that VFC is sensitive to reward cues, and that portions of DLPFC and VFC may work in opposition during the delay epoch of
a working memory task in order to facilitate task performance. 相似文献
198.
Lambert AJ Payne BK Jacoby LL Shaffer LM Chasteen AL Khan SR 《Journal of personality and social psychology》2003,84(2):277-295
This article challenges the highly intuitive assumption that prejudice should be less likely in public compared with private settings. It proposes that stereotypes may be conceptualized as a type of dominant response (C. L. Hull, 1943; R. B. Zajonc, 1965) whose expression may be enhanced in public settings, especially among individuals high in social anxiety. Support was found for this framework in an impression formation paradigm (Experiment 1) and in a speeded task designed to measure stereotypic errors in perceptual identification (Experiment 2). Use of the process dissociation procedure (B. K. Payne, L. L. Jacoby, & A. J. Lambert, in press) demonstrated that these effects were due to decreases in cognitive control rather than increases in stereotype accessibility. The findings highlight a heretofore unknown and ironic consequence of anticipated public settings: Warning people that others may be privy to their responses may actually increase prejudice among the very people who are most worried about doing the wrong thing in public. 相似文献
199.
Two studies examine complementarity (vs. mimicry) of dominant and submissive nonverbal behaviors. In the first study, participants interacted with a confederate who displayed either dominance (through postural expansion) or submission (through postural constriction). On average, participants exposed to a dominant confederate decreased their postural stance, whereas participants exposed to a submissive confederate increased their stance. Further, participants with complementing responses (dominance in response to submission and submission in response to dominance) liked their partner more and were more comfortable than those who mimicked. In the second study, complementarity and mimicry were manipulated, and complementarity resulted in more liking and comfort than mimicry. The findings speak to the likelihood of hierarchical differentiation. 相似文献
200.