Evaluating Factorial Invariance: An Interval Estimation Approach Using Bayesian Structural Equation Modeling

In this study, we introduce an interval estimation approach based on Bayesian structural equation modeling to evaluate factorial invariance. For each tested parameter, the size of noninvariance with an uncertainty interval (i.e. highest density interval [HDI]) is assessed via Bayesian parameter estimation. By comparing the most credible values (i.e. 95% HDI) with a region of practical equivalence (ROPE), the Bayesian approach allows researchers to (1) support the null hypothesis of practical invariance, and (2) examine the practical importance of the noninvariant parameter. Compared to the traditional likelihood ratio test, simulation results suggested that the proposed Bayesian approach could offer additional insight into evaluating factorial invariance, thus, leading to more informative conclusions. We provide an empirical example to demonstrate the procedures necessary to implement the proposed method in applied research. The importance of and influences on the choice of an appropriate ROPE are discussed.     

The effect of reinforcement probability on time discrimination in the midsession reversal task

We examined how biasing time perception affects choice in a midsession reversal task. Given a simultaneous discrimination between stimuli S1 and S2, with choices of S1 reinforced during the first, but not the second half of the trials, and choices of S2 reinforced during the second, but not the first half of the trials, pigeons show anticipation errors (premature choices of S2) and perseveration errors (belated choices of S1). This suggests that choice depends on timing processes, on predicting when the contingency reverses based on session duration. We exposed 7 pigeons to a midsession reversal task and manipulated the reinforcement rate on each half of the session. Compared to equal reinforcement rates on both halves of the session, when the reinforcement rate on the first half was lower than on the second half, performance showed more anticipation and less perseveration errors, and when the reinforcement rate on the first half was higher than on the second half, performance showed a remarkable reduction of both types of errors. These results suggest that choice depends on both time into the session and the outcome of previous trials. They also challenge current models of timing to integrate local effects.     

Are You Ready to Have Fun? The Spanish State Form of the State–Trait–Cheerfulness Inventory

Although cheerfulness, seriousness, and bad mood as traits have been widely studied as the basis of sense of humor, data are scarce regarding the same dimensions as states. In this study, we adapted the state form of the State–Trait–Cheerfulness Inventory (STCI–S) into Spanish. At the same time, we empirically tested new predictions. We assessed 5 independent samples accounting for 1,029 participants (647 women) with ages ranging from 18 to 78 years. We confirmed the 3-dimensional structure as well as a strong measurement invariance between men and women. The internal consistency of the scale was satisfactory, the expected intercorrelations emerged, and the convergence between states and traits was corroborated. We also confirmed that the STCI–S's items were sensitive to affective changes in the environment. A longitudinal stability study of the state–trait dimensions using latent state–trait (LST) models revealed that all three trait measures capture mostly stable interindividual differences, with occasion-specific effects mainly in the state dimensions. Finally, we found that the STCI–S dimensions were related to state well-being. The results suggest that the STCI–S is a valid option for measuring the state basis of sense of humor in the Spanish population.     

The role of dark‐side of motivation and intention to continue in exercise: A self‐determination theory approach

Motivation plays an important role when it comes to regular physical exercise. Hence, low levels of intentions to continue exercising in the future may ultimately lead to higher rates of exercise dropout. The first objective of the present research was to test a theoretical model considering the dark side of motivational determinants on intentions towards exercising in the future. The second objective consisted in comparing groups with different characteristics, as a way to identify individuals with weaker intention, which is believed to be an indicator of a higher dropout risk. In total, 544 (294 female; 250 male) gym exercisers aged between 18 and 58 years (M = 35.00; SD = 11.57) partook in the present research. Participants were engaged in fitness group classes (n = 273) or in cardio/resistance workouts (n = 271), and their exercise experience ranged from 3 to 120 months (M = 47.41; SD = 7.54). Results showed that the measurement and the structural model had an excellent fit. In addition, the structural model was invariant between gender, fitness activities, and exercise experience. Each group displayed different explained variance in intention to continue exercising. Overall, male, young adults and more experienced exercisers had stronger intentions towards exercising. Fitness instructors should be aware of their own thwarting behaviors, especially when interacting with female, young and less experienced exercisers, since they have weaker intentions to exercise in the future, possibly representing an increased risk of withdrawal.     

Restricted Recalibration of Item Response Theory Models

Psychometrika - In item response theory (IRT), it is often necessary to perform restricted recalibration (RR) of the model: A set of (focal) parameters is estimated holding a set of (nuisance)...     

Orbitofrontal dysfunction in multiple sclerosis: Iowa Gambling Task

Cognitive dysfunction has been widely studied in multiple sclerosis (MS), however decision-making has been less investigated. The current study examined the decision-making processes of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) using a computerized version of the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). This task was applied to 18 patients with clinically diagnosed MS and 18 healthy control subjects matched for age, sex, and years of education. The results showed that IGT scores differ significantly between patients with MS and the healthy control subjects: the patients with MS made significantly less advantageous decisions than the controls in the IGT. Possible causes of impaired decision-making in multiple sclerosis are discussed.     

You Can Lead An Ape To A Tool But...: A Review Of Povinelli’s Folk Physics For Apes: The Chimpanzee’s Theory Of How The World Works.

We reviewed Daniel Povinelli's book, Folk physics for apes: The chimpanzee's theory of how the world works. After a summary of the book's contents, we analyzed two sets of experiments on chimpanzees' folk psychology: one that explored whether chimpanzees understand that others see (i.e., that apes have internal visual experiences) and another that examined whether chimpanzees can distinguish intended from unintended actions. The conceptual scaffolding on which these studies were conceived was sufficiently faulty that their outcomes were virtually assured a priori. We then analyzed two sets of experiments on chimpanzees' folk physics, reinforcing our view that conceptual confusion guaranteed that certain key predictions about the outcome of these studies could not be supported. A unifying reason for this conceptual confusion is that the author devalues understanding that results from programmatic conditioning. We closed the review by relating Povinelli's findings and conclusions to behavior analysis and by explaining why behavior analysts should read this book     

LEARNING TO TIME: A PERSPECTIVE

In the last decades, researchers have proposed a large number of theoretical models of timing. These models make different assumptions concerning how animals learn to time events and how such learning is represented in memory. However, few studies have examined these different assumptions either empirically or conceptually. For knowledge to accumulate, variation in theoretical models must be accompanied by selection of models and model ideas. To that end, we review two timing models, Scalar Expectancy Theory (SET), the dominant model in the field, and the Learning‐to‐Time (LeT) model, one of the few models dealing explicitly with learning. In the first part of this article, we describe how each model works in prototypical concurrent and retrospective timing tasks, identify their structural similarities, and classify their differences concerning temporal learning and memory. In the second part, we review a series of studies that examined these differences and conclude that both the memory structure postulated by SET and the state dynamics postulated by LeT are probably incorrect. In the third part, we propose a hybrid model that may improve on its parents. The hybrid model accounts for the typical findings in fixed‐interval schedules, the peak procedure, mixed fixed interval schedules, simple and double temporal bisection, and temporal generalization tasks. In the fourth and last part, we identify seven challenges that any timing model must meet.     

Effects of unilateral distractors: A comparison of eye movement and key press responses

We compared the effects of a unilateral distractor on the latencies of voluntary eye movements and key press responses in order to elucidate some of the differences between these two types of response with respect to processing distractors. On each trial, participants indicated the colour of a central patch by making a left or a right response. The colour of the distractor either matched the target colour or matched the colour associated with the incorrect response. Similarly, the side of the distractor corresponded to the side of either the correct or the incorrect response. The results showed that side congruency exerted a main effect only on eye movement responses, but colour congruency affected eye movement and key press responses similarly. Moreover, when we made the target more distinct from the distractor, only distractors that appeared on the same side as the response elicited a colour congruency effect, for both response modalities. Wepropose that (1) the appearance of the distractor activates oculomotor cells, which facilitate a subsequent eye movement with the same direction vector, (2) the distinctiveness of the target determines whether colour and side congruency interact, and (3) spatial codes mediate the interaction between colour and side congruency that occurs when the target is sufficiently distinct from the distractor.     

Behavioral variability and frequency-dependent selection.

In Experiment 1, two conditions were compared: (a) a variability schedule in which food reinforcement was delivered for the fourth peck in a sequence that differed from the preceding N four-peck sequences, with the value of N continuously adjusted to maintain reinforcement probability approximately constant; and (b) a control condition in which the variability constraint was dropped but reinforcement probability remained constant. Pigeons responded approximately randomly under the variability schedule but showed strong stereotyped behavior under the control condition. Experiments 2 and 3 tested the idea that variability is the outcome of a type of frequency-dependent selection, namely differential reinforcement of infrequent behavior patterns. The results showed that pigeons alternate when frequency-dependent selection is applied to single pecks because alternation is an easy-to-learn stable pattern that satisfies the frequency-dependent condition. Nevertheless, 2 of 4 pigeons showed random behavior when frequency-dependent selection was applied to two pecks, even though double alternation is a permissible and stable stereotype under these conditions. It appears that random behavior results when pigeons are unable to acquire the stable stereotyped behavior under a given frequency-dependent schedule.