The response to injustice: Effects of varying levels of social support and position of advantage or disadvantage

This study investigated the effects of varying levels of social support as well as position of advantage or disadvantage on subjects' response to injustice. Conditions of advantage and disadvantage were established by randomly assigning one member of each experimental dyad to a method of working which prevented him/her from earning points for prizes. Three levels of social support (“none,” “peer,” “authoritative”) were created. Advantaged and disadvantaged subjects receiving authoritative support for the possibility of change and disadvantaged subjects receiving peer support in the form of divided opinion statements rated the system as less fair than either group in the absence of support or the advantaged receiving only peer support. Disadvantaged subjects evidenced a tendency to assume personal responsibility for their lower outcomes. Social support reduced this tendency but did not eliminate it.     

Locus of control and peer status: a scale for Children's Perceptions of Social Interactions

A total of 985 third through sixth grade children participated in the development of a 48-item Locus of Control Scale for Children's Perceptions of Social Interactions (LOC-CPSI). Scores are based on the number of positive, negative, and total social reinforcers a child attributes to his or her own behavior (internal control). A social desirability subscale is included. Reliability coefficients were comparable to or greater than those of existing locus of control measures. Convergent validity was demonstrated by low, significant correlations with other locus of control measures. Internal scores correlated significantly with sociometric measures of popularity and predicted peer status better than other locus of control measures. Theoretical implications and potential clinical application are discussed.     

Sensation seeking, augmenting-reducing, and absolute auditory threshold: a strength-of-the-nervous-system perspective

The following measures were obtained from 42 student volunteers: the General and the Disinhibition subscales of the Sensation Seeking Scale (Form IV), the Reducer-Augmenter Scale, and the Absolute Auditory Threshold. General sensation seeking correlated significantly with the Reducer-Augmenter Scale, r(40) = .59, p less than .001, and the Absolute Auditory Threshold, r(40) = .45, p less than .005. Both results proved general across sex. These findings, that high-sensation seekers tend to be reducers and to lack sensitivity to weak stimulation, were interpreted as supporting strength-of-the-nervous-system theory more than the formulation of Zuckerman and his associates.     

The roles of self-esteem and self-consciousness in the Wortman-Brehm model of reactance and learned helplessness

The present experiments were designed to study the conditions under which failure would enhance or inhibit subsequent task performance. Based on the theory of Wortman and Brehm (1975), it was expected that small amounts of failure would produce reactance (manifested by improved performance at a subsequent task), whereas large amounts would lead to learned helplessness (i.e., impaired later performance). It was further expected that individual differences in self-esteem and private self-consciousness would serve as moderator variables for the above effects. In Experiment 1, subjects were exposed to either a small amount of failure or no failure before working on an anagrams task. As predicted, subjects high in self-consciousness, who have shown greater reactance arousal in attitude change studies, performed better on the anagrams task than subjects low in self-consciousness in the small-failure condition, but not in the no-failure condition. Further analyses revealed that this Self-Consciousness X Small Failure interaction was attributable to the performance data of the low, but not the high self-esteem subjects. Experiment 2 was designed to replicate and extend these results. Subjects were pretreated with either a small amount of failure, an extended amount of failure, or no failure before working on the anagrams task. A significant Self-Esteem X Helplessness Training interaction emerged. Relative to the no-failure condition, in which the two self-esteem groups did not differ, low self-esteem participants (low SEs) performed marginally better than did high self-esteem individuals (high SEs) in the small-failure condition but significantly worse than high SEs in the extended-failure condition. The effect of private self-consciousness was considerably weaker in this study, possibly because the sample included few low SEs (who are especially influenced by self-focused attention) who were also relatively low in self-consciousness. Questionnaire data from Experiment 2 were consistent with the notion that enhanced performance reflected reactance, whereas impaired performance signified helplessness.     

The reliability and concurrent validity of alternative methods for assessing ego development

This study demonstrates that an unstructured interview (INT) and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) are suitable alternatives to Loevinger's Sentence Completion Test of Ego Development. Seventy subjects were solicited from six groups varying widely with respect to age and education level. Each subject was asked to complete the SCI, an INT and the TAT. Two raters using Loevinger and Wessler's self-training exercises and Loevinger, Wessler, and Redmore's scoring manual rated subjects' responses to each instrument. Reliability was found between raters and concurrent validity between instruments. Subjects scoring high on the SCT were found to score higher on the INT and TAT.     

Factor analysis of the interpersonal trust scale with a noncollege population

This study tested the invariance of the factorial structure of Rotter's Interpersonal Trust Scale (ITS) in a noncollege population. Exploratory factor analysis of the responses of 214 volunteers yielded three factors interpreted as Exploitation, Sincerity, and Institutional Trust. This factor solution was cross-validated in a confirmation sample of 196 volunteers. Cosines between corresponding factors were high across samples and across sex. The similarity was pointed out between the present factor structure and the results of earlier studies with college students. Implications for possible refinement of the ITS were discussed.     

Measuring Machiavellianism with Mach V: a psychometric investigation

This study re-examines the reliability of the Mach V Scale using two different scoring procedures: Christie's scoring system and an alternative scoring system by Rogers and Semin. Using commonly accepted standards, results for 123 business managers indicate that the Mach V Scale is not a reliable instrument. Regardless of the scoring Scheme or the method of assessment employed, reliability estimates found in this study are well below conventionally accepted criteria and are also well below reliability estimates previously reported in the literature. In addition, the investigation indicates that although the alternative scoring system appears to increase the precision of the Mach V Scale, the effect of this increase is negligible in hypothesis testing.     

Predicting contraceptive behavior from attitudes: a comparison of within- versus across-subjects procedures

Within- versus across-subjects procedures for predicting behavior from attitudes were contrasted. Each procedure requires a comparison among attitudes in order to generate a prediction; the comparison is either among the same attitudes held by different people (across subjects) or among different attitudes held by the same person (within subject). It was hypothesized that the within-subject model provides a more adequate explanation of behavior from attitudinal constructs and, hence, more accurate prediction of behavior from attitudes than does the across-subjects model. To test this view, a sample of 349 married couples was administered a questionnaire containing measures of three attitudinal components--affect, cognition, and conation--toward each of four contraceptive methods--oral contraceptives, IUD, diaphragm, and condoms. Contraceptive behavior was assessed 1 year later. In support of the hypothesis, the within-subject predictions bore a significantly stronger relation to the behavioral criteria than did the across-subjects predictions. This effect was consistent for each of the three components of attitude, for the prediction of behavior and behavioral intention, for male and female respondents, and for a variety of contraceptive behaviors. In addition, both the within- and the across-subjects analyses demonstrated a clear rank ordering in the predictive validity of the three attitudinal components: Conation was a better predictor of behavior than was affect, which, in turn, was better than cognition.     

A critique of Plomin and Foch's "A Twin Study of Objectively Assessed Personality in Childhood"

Plomin and Foch's (1980) study of objectively assessed personality in childhood is critiqued on five points: (a) conceptual validity of the measures, (b) stability of the measures for the population age range, (c) comparability of populations, (d) accuracy of literature review, and (e) appropriate interpretation of broad heritability data. The Plomin and Foch study contains major errors; it is theoretically and methodologically flawed. Their report is especially significant because it is representative of problems critical to the study of the genetic correlates of personality.