论存在者与本质

本文首先从逻辑学与本体论的区分入手,强调了本质概念和存在概念的本体论或实存论性质,提出了一条区别于传统思辨哲学的从经验的存在者到先验的存在者的致思路线;尔后依次从质料与形式、本质与存在、主体与偶性三个层面阐述了阿奎那的本质特殊学说和实体（单纯实体和复合实体）学说;最后则强调了作为“第一存在”的“绝对单纯性”的上帝的本体论地位和形而上学意义。     

A comment on ‘some standard errors in item response theory’

In maximum likelihood estimation the standard error of the location parameter of the three parameter logistic model can be large, due to inaccurate estimation of the lower asymptote. Thissen and Wainer who demonstrated this effect, suggested that the introduction of a prior distribution for the lower asymptote might alleviate the problems. Here it is demonstrated in some detail that the standard error of the location parameter can be made acceptably small in this way.The author thanks Pieter Vijn for his helpful comments.     

Coping with homesickness: The construction of the adult homesickness coping questionnaire

This study examined coping with homesickness in a sample of homesick adult women. For this purpose, the Adult Homesickness Coping Questionnaire (AHCQ) was constructed. Analysis of the structure of the AHCQ revealed four factors: Social Support, Positive Thinking/Distraction, Turning to Religion, and Mental Escape. The psychometric properties of the AHCQ appeared adequate. Results indicated that ways of coping with homesickness are related to diverse aspects of the homesickness experience, like length of stay in the homesickness situation, causal attributions, and intensity levels of homesickness feelings. It is emphasized that future prospective studies should focus specifically on the (in)effectiveness of coping strategies in order to design adequate interventions for homesick individuals.     

Determinants of Response Recovery in Extinction Following Response Elimination

Elimination of autoshaped responding by random or negatively-contingent response-reductive procedures may leave a previously acquired association intact; however, two previous studies suggest that response elimination by backward conditioning may have more permanent effects. In Experiments 1 and 3, the autoshaped responding of pigeons was eliminated by a backward or negative contingency. Although speed of recovery during a subsequent extinction phase was greater following the backward contingency in Experiment 3, level of recovery did not differ as a function of response elimination procedure in either experiment. A possible basis for the discrepancy between the present and previous findings is the contingency arranged between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli (CS and US, respectively) during forward conditioning. In Experiments 1 and 2, probability of US presentation following the CS (p(US|CS) = 0.4 or 1.0) was varied within (Experiment 1) or between (Experiment 2) groups of birds. In both cases, level of recovery was higher following training under (p(US|CS) = 0.4). The results are consistent with a memory retrieval theory in which unreinforced trials function as a retrieval cue for not responding.     

Effectiveness of DRO tokens in decreasing disruptive behavior in the classroom with five multiply handicapped children

In this study the effectiveness of differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) with tokens was assessed in the treatment of various topographies of disruptive behavior in the classroom with five children who were multiply handicapped. Prior to implementation of the treatment, reinforcer assessment was conducted to identify items to be used as back-up reinforcers. Data were analyzed using time-series analysis. Results show that DRO tokens were highly effective in decreasing disruptive behavior of all participants. ©1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The role of cultural and spiritual expressions in affirming a sense of self,place, and purpose among young urban,Indigenous Australians

This article sets out to discuss the impact that urban living has had on the lives of young Indigenous people. It will seek to discover some of the problems that occur when there is a meeting of two cultures, in this case the Indigenous culture of Australian Aboriginal people and the mainstream culture that has been derived largely from west European traditions which, in turn, was born out of Western Christian perspectives. As well, it will explore the challenges faced by minority groups who live in pluralist contexts when they attempt to hand on their ways to their young people, in particular, the difficulties faced by urban Indigenous Australians who try to ensure that their young people will develop knowledge about their cultural and spiritual heritage. Finally it will examine how the rights of young Indigenous people need to be protected so that they can continue to develop their particular identity and at the same time take their place with pride and integrity in the pluralist social context that defines Australia today.

Many Australians understand that Aboriginal people have a special respect for nature. The identity we have with the land is sacred and unique. Many people are beginning to understand this more. Also there are many Australians who appreciate that Aboriginal people have a very strong sense of community. All persons matter. All of us belong and there are many more Australians who understand that we are people who celebrate together.

What I want you to know about is another special quality of my people. I believe it is most important. It is our most unique gift. It is perhaps the greatest gift we can give to our fellow Australians. In our language it is the quality called dadirri. It is inner, deep listening and quiet, still awareness.

Dadirri recognizes the deep spring inside us. We call on it and it calls to us. This is the gift that Australia is thirsting for. It is something like what you call ‘contemplation’. (Ungunmerr, 2003 Ungunmerr, Miriam‐Rose. 2003. “Dadirri—The spring within”. In Dadirri: the spring within—the spiritual art of the Aboriginal people from Australia’s Daly River region, Edited by: Farrelly, E. vii–ix. Darwin, NT, , Australia: Terry Knight and Associates.  [Google Scholar])     

Stop Doubting with Descartes

Did Descartes manage to overcome the skeptics? If we understand “overcome” in the sense of “refute,” the answer is no, since his hyperbolic doubt harbors several blind spots and is, therefore, not as radical as is commonly argued. In this way, the victory of the cogito is perhaps less decisive and fruitful than it is claimed. If we understand “overcome” in the sense of “remove” or “move beyond,” the answer is yes. Descartes has overcome skepticism, but at the cost of a decision, a sort of bet made in favor of reason based on a confidence in the human mind that is never really subverted. This faith in reason, truth, and specific epistemological principles in Descartes’ philosophy constitute what Wittgenstein calls “hinges,” which are indispensable for doubting and searching for truth. In this sense, Descartes’ anti-skepticism is more a confidence in reason in order to save the possibility of science than the result of a logical refutation.

     

Additive structure in qualitative data: An alternating least squares method with optimal scaling features

A method is developed to investigate the additive structure of data that (a) may be measured at the nominal, ordinal or cardinal levels, (b) may be obtained from either a discrete or continuous source, (c) may have known degrees of imprecision, or (d) may be obtained in unbalanced designs. The method also permits experimental variables to be measured at the ordinal level. It is shown that the method is convergent, and includes several previously proposed methods as special cases. Both Monte Carlo and empirical evaluations indicate that the method is robust.This research was supported in part by grant MH-10006 from the National Institute of Mental Health to the Psychometric Laboratory of the University of North Carolina. We wish to thank Thomas S. Wallsten for comments on an earlier draft of this paper. Copies of the paper and of ADDALS, a program to perform the analyses discussed herein, may be obtained from the second author.     

Information Processing and New Ideas — Lateral and Vertical Thinking*

‘Vertical thinking is concerned with digging the same hole deeper. Lateral thinking is concerned with digging the hole somewhere else.’ This is how the author differentiates between the two types of thinking. Education, according to the author, only teaches vertical thinking because lateral thinking has always seemed impossible to teach. He then outlines why (with the increased interest in creativity and the computer) there is growing interest in the thinking processes. Describing how the brain operates and how creative behaviour may be increased Dr. de Bono goes on to discuss the nature of vertical thinking. It is sequential, based on the idea that one must not be wrong, works on the most promising approach, only moves in a planned direction, only considers the relevant, and tends to build up large established patterns. To describe the lateral thinking process the author poses a number of problems discussing their solution and the difficulties which people normally encounter in solving these problems. Finally, he sets out the four main categories of the techniques of lateral thinking; and the reader's attention is drawn to several books which Dr. de Bono has written on the subject.