方法优势与方法的非统一性

自本世纪60年代以来,理论选择的不一致问题吸引了许多探讨科学变革理论的理论家们(如库恩、图尔明、费耶阿本德、夏皮尔、劳丹等)。此问题源于科学家们对于相互竞争的理论的认知价值经常有、而且长期存在着不一致的看法。除了有这种分歧以外,理论争论的不同阵营的科学家们还一次又一次地(而且依然继续地)为他们的理论选择提出不同的理由。以前的实证主义科学哲学家们对方法的统一性假说如此深信不疑,以至对于科学家在选择理论时的不一致,或科学家面对更成功的具有竞争性的理论时追求新生的理论这类现象潜在的合理性,很难作出说明。     

Self-Optimization of Walking in Nondisabled Children and Children With Spastic Hemiplegic Cerebral Palsy

Children voluntarily adopt a frequency and movement pattern for walking. The force-driven harmonic oscillator (FDHO) model was used in this study for accurate prediction of the preferred walking frequency of nondisabled children and children with spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy. Four potential optimality criteria with which the preferred walking pattern was forced to comply were examined: minimization of physiological costs, maximization of mechanical energy conservation, minimization of asymmetry in lower limb movements and minimization of variability of interlimb and intralimb coordination. Age and gender-matched nondisabled children (n = 6) and children with spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy (n = 6) were tested under six frequency conditions of walking at a constant speed on a treadmill. For the nondisabled children, the results indicated that their preferred walking frequency could be accurately predicted by the FDHO model. They freely adopted a walking pattern that minimized physiological costs, asymmetry, and variability of inter- and intralimb coordination. For the children with spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy, the prediction of preferred overground walking frequency required that the FDHO model be modified to account for muscle mass and leg length discrepancies between limbs and increased stiffness. Most of the children achieved the same optimality goals as the nondisabled when walking at the preferred frequency. However, the children were found to use different mechanisms to attain these goals: for example, a steeper increase observed in physiological cost at higher frequencies; a lowered center of gravity of the body, which allowed for angular symmetry; and greater variability of between-joint coordination in the nonaffected limb and less variability in the affected limb.     

早期年龄儿童短时记忆的发展

有关短时记忆的发展问题,如果说在种系发展上已经完成了大量的研究工作,并且做了充分令人信服的、关于在进化中短时记忆不断改善的结论的话,那么,在个体发展上,人的早期短对记忆的发展问题的研究,还是个空白。有关记忆的实验心理学研究,是从儿童生后的第三、四年开始的。以往有关个体发育的早期阶段记忆的发展材料,主要来自《母亲日记》一类的资料,在这类资料中,有关记忆的记述,带有偶然性。在这个时期,记忆的某些形式,其中包括短时记忆,一般地说,还没有研究。     

关于思维活动对识记的作用

我们这篇文章专门用来论讨在直接再现和延缓再现中,记忆和思维相互关系这个当前必须解决的问题А·А·斯米尔诺夫早就证实过,积极的思维活动是提高不随意识记效率的基础。积极思维活动的内容越复杂,就越容易识记。     

把普通教育和职业训练提高到新的水平

学校改革——这是历史发展的必然规律的体现。教育是为了使人适应生活而培养人的,而生活又在不断地发展,它对人的要求也在不断地变化,因此,教育也应当不断地变化。这一改革将根据本世纪末、下世纪初发达的社会主义社会对学校教育的要求来进行。