The autoshaping procedure as a residual block clock

In the first experiment, 4 pigeons were each presented with a recurring sequence of four key colors followed by the delivery of grain (block clock). Once the rate of pecking had stabilized, three of the colors were replaced, during different series of sessions, by a darkening of the key. The rate of pecking was reduced within those segments of the interval between deliveries of food during which the key was dark; when the key was dark during the final portion of the interval, rates were reduced throughout the entire interval. In the second experiment, 3 new pigeons were exposed to a different sequence of colors, and the final stimulus was replaced in successive conditions by a novel color, a darkened key, and a restoration of the original color. The data indicated that darkening the key had a more severe, more extensive, and more persistent effect than did a mere change in color. These results suggest that it may be fruitful to conceptualize the autoshaping procedure as a special version of the block clock in which pecking is suppressed throughout the greater part of the interval by darkening the key. In the final condition, the same stimulus appeared in each of the last three portions of the interval. The rate of pecking was lower during the last two portions than when distinctive colors were presented, with the peak rate now appearing in the fifth of seven equal temporal components.     

甘岑的自然演绎演算

迄今为止,我们所主要讨论的逻辑演算,即用公理方法处理的狭谓词演算,标志着把数学方法运用于逻辑获得了显著的成功。这种演算的形式上的简易是令人称道的,从纯粹数学的观点看,它可以同公理化的射影几何及抽象群论这一类数学观念的完满体现的学科相媲美。此外,作为应用于研究演绎系     

Obtaining informed consent for HIV antibody testing: the decision making process

All patients referring themselves for HIV antibody testing must receive pre-test counselling and must give their informed consent before testing can proceed. All patients being referred by their doctors for HIV antibody testing must also receive pre-test counselling and must give their informed consent before testing can proceed, except in very unusual circumstances. This paper is written primarily for medical and nursing staff who are considering referring a patient for testing and it is particularly relevant to those staff working in the field of mental health. This paper draws on professional guidelines and suggests that staff use a two-part decision making process. In the first part die referrer decides whether there are substantial clinical grounds for needing the test result immediately. If there are, the referral is made for pre-test counselling and testing, for example at the local Genito-Urinary Medicine (GU) clinic. In the second part experienced AIDS counsellors try to enable the patient to decide whether or not to proceed. If the patient is not able to understand or make a decision the AIDS counsellors, in consultation with other staff, will decide whether to proceed. Whatever the decision, it should be respected by professional staff.     

新的多重智力观

人们可以轻易地测出高度,但智力却没有这样简单.这主要是因为人们具有多重智力,而不是简单的一种智力.总的来讲,我已区分了七种形式的智力.在现代社会得到高度评价的两种智力是语言和逻辑数理(Logical-mathematic)能力.当人们认为某人聪明时,往往是指这两种能力.因为个体有了语言和逻辑数理能力,就能在那些所谓测量智力的测验上获得好分数.     

空间能力研究的历史背景

定义空间能力的方式多种多样,致使我们难以将其含义精确地归结为某一术语。有些学者广义地把空间能力描述为在那些非语言信息加工中的个体差异,而另一些学者则狭义地把它描述为在完成空间测验中的个体差异,由于用以研究空间能力的方法和测量的不同,定义问题变得更为复杂。本文将对空间能力的测量作一简要概述,尽管它类似于因素分析方法学的历史,但由于关系到空间能力的定义,因而,重点在于研究的结果而不在于因素分析方法学的历史本身。     

判断和选择中的认知错觉

人类的错误为研究人类智能的结构和功能提供了有价值的资料。对于记忆的研究多是建立在遗忘的基础上,对知觉的研究常常基于识别力衰退,对于语言和思维的研究已经揭示了失言。关于人类错误的研究格外重要,因为它表明了人类智力的某些局限,它时常暴露出隐藏在人们行为之下的规律和机制,它常常提示出可以改善人们表现的方式。错觉是一种特殊的错误,它特别令人困惑,因为人们造成的这种错误始终具有迷惑力,甚至当人们已彻底认识到这是一种错误时亦然。例如,我们会感到在图1中右边的线     

胡塞尔的现象学与科学实在论

胡塞尔对“伽利略科学”的议论(载于其《欧洲科学的危机和先验现象学》一书1970年英文翻译版)常以其幼稚的工具主义态度和对科学抱有的敌意而遭到摈弃。由于他对科学理想化的误解,由于他将生活世界当作一种专用的概念构架,以及由于他否认科学在原则上能够完全描述世界(因为普通的前科学概念是不可替换的),他受到了公开的批评。本文中我要阐明胡塞尔关于实在论的主张,并运用这种主张说明前两种批评是立足于曲解。第三种批评应予采纳,不过,这种批评与胡塞尔的基本主张是一致的,即议论事物的现象是重要的,但是经验科学却难以彻底了解这些现象。     

共产主义实验在苏联

1.斯大林个人扭曲了的共产主义意识形态“斯大林主义”,是苏联官方理论家从不使用的一个术语。而且,它一般也并没有被人们广泛地当作马克思-列宁主义来运用。有时候,斯大林主义被误解为是马列主义的一种扩大或发展。实际上,斯大林主义倒可以看作是从马列主义中派生出来并且背离了马列主义的,它(直到1953年斯大林去世时     

系统剪影:作为哲学的一般系统

我对介绍一般系统论有为难和讨厌之感。显然,在我看来,一般系统论者所关注的中心问题即“系统的本质是什么?”基本上是一个哲学问题。然而,我所接触的一般系统论者不仅没提及哲学,而且似乎把哲学看作废弃的和缺乏时代性的东西(哲学的某些问题很久以前就被逻辑实证主义者取消