Randomly scheduled spot observations of 83 zero to six-year-old American middle-class children were used to investigate factors affecting the development of sex differences in young children's activities in and near their home. Sex and age differences in children's typical play and nonplay activities and in the people with whom they did activities were examined. The results showed that there were fewer sex differences in children's activities, activity partners, and general social settings than expected. Girls spent more time engaged in housework and school-related activities than boys, while boys spent more time in social gross motor play with other children and in self-care activities than girls. Children spent a surprisingly large amount of their time with members of their immediate family — particularly their mother and one other sibling. Boys and girls did not differ, however, in the time they were in settings or doing activities with their father, with their mother, or with same-or mixed-sex child groups.This research was supported by an award to the author from the Wisconsin Alumnae Research Foundation at the University of Wisconsin — Madison. The author would also like to acknowledge the research and editorial assistance of Daniel J. Walsh. In addition, Aletha Huston, Beatrice B. Whiting, and Gary G. Price provided valuable advice on this and earlier versions of this paper. 相似文献
A new approach is described for the development and structure of perceptual knowledge-based systems. This systematic method for acquiring perceptual knowledge for use in knowledge-based systems and for representing perceptual knowledge within the systems has revealed that two broad classes of perceptual activity can each be characterized by a single logical operator. The number of rules necessary to accomplish particular perceptual tasks can also be estimated. 相似文献
The essay that follows is in two parts. The first is a valediction; the second attempts to use some recent events at the Journal as a text for discussion of the current state of the field of family therapy. 相似文献
A robust body of research examines factors affecting the likelihood that women experience increasing barriers to promotion in workplaces. However, limited research examines how racialized and gendered processes may intersect and work differently for racially and gender marginalized workers. Specifically, the processes relating to a worker’s ability to reach middle-level management positions (e.g., those managers who oversee a small group of employees) and senior-level management positions (e.g., CEOs and other executive positions) may vary based on workers’ race and gender. Using 2015 EEO-1 data collected by the U.S. Equal Opportunity Employment Commission (EEOC), we examine how the characteristics of a workplace affect Black men, Black women, White men, and White women’s share of middle- and senior-level management. We find Black women and Black men are strikingly under-represented in both middle and senior management in private-sector workplaces. Our results demonstrate that access to middle- and senior-management varies by the characteristics of the workplace and workers’ race and gender. Overall, our findings point to an important implication: Greater oversight of workplaces, including by the EEOC, is associated with marginalized race/gender groups having higher shares of management.
The aim of the study was to analyse lateralized preferences during reaching and grasping in infants relative to changes in manual actions from 4 to 7 months of age. Reaching and grasping movements with visual fixation were studied with objects placed in one of three places on a table: to the left, to the right and in the midline of the infant. Although the two lateralized objects were approached and grasped with ipsilateral hand, movements towards the object in the midline were most often performed with a preferential hand. There was preferential use of the left hand for reaching around the fourth month, then a preferential use of the right hand for grasping from the sixth month. The shape of the left hand during reaching movements terminated in the vicinity of the object. The slower the speed, the closer the hand came to the object. The onset of the prehension was associated with a preferential use of the right hand, which performed grasping, more finely than the left hand. Thus, manual specialization is already present in early infancy: the left hand appears to be dedicated to spatial calibration and the right hand to the task of prehension. 相似文献
Evidences have been given which suggest that a newly formed memory trace is processed during paradoxical sleep (PS) following learning. The present experiments were aimed at testing the hypothesis that during postlearning PS the new memory trace is in a similar state as immediately after acquisition. For this purpose, a mild electrical stimulation of the mesencephalic reticular formation (MRF)--known to enhance retention performance when delivered just after learning--was administered during postlearning PS phases. Wistar rats were trained to run in a six-unit spatial discrimination maze for food reward. After each daily trial, extradural cortical electrodes (ECoG) activity was monitored polygraphically for 4 h. Half of the animals received nonawakening MRF stimulations during the first six phases of PS. Control rats received no stimulation. The learning results showed a marked improvement in performance, in terms of error number reduction, in the stimulated group. Results of a second experiment confirmed the facilitative effect of MRF stimulations given during postlearning PS. Moreover, they emphasized the specific role of PS, by showing that the same stimulations were ineffective when delivered, at the same time intervals after training, during six periods of waking or six periods of slow-wave sleep. These results lend support to the idea of a reactivation of the new memory trace during PS. They suggest that dynamic processes, similar to those immediately following acquisition or exposure to a reactivating treatment (i.e., a reminder), take place during postlearning PS. 相似文献
In modern society, flow and stress are well-known terms in the theoretical discussions of the good life, subjective well-being and quality of life. The purpose of this article is to present the results of a phenomenological analysis of flow and stress experiences in everyday life. The analysis yielded a distinction between different phenomenological dimensions identified as arising in different combinations within concrete experience of flow and stress. These different dimensions were characterised by different feelings, different experiences of time and different experiences of the world. The results are discussed and interpreted in the light of Martin Heidegger's, Otto Friedrich Bollnow's and F.C.J. Buytendijk's theories of moods and feelings. Flow and stress experiences are phenomenologically interpreted as moods and classified as a modern version of basic polarities of moods as described by Bollnow and Buytendijk. Lastly, the concept of mood is emphasised as a specific entrance to the subjective and experienced dimensions involved in the complex concepts of quality of life, the good life and happiness. 相似文献