Psychometric properties and dimensional structure of the Spanish adaptation of the Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport

The purpose of this study was to adapt and validate a Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport (ISCCS), establishing its psychometric properties and its dimensional structure. Participants were 306 athletes from different sports, aged between 14 and 28 years (45.7% males and 54.3% females), who completed the ISCSS along with other measures of constructs theoretically related to coping. Factor analysis identified eight factors that merged in three high-order dimensions representing task-oriented coping, emotion-oriented coping and disengagement-oriented coping. The factors showed appropriate reliability (Cronbach alpha and factor correlations), convergent validity (correlations with COPE Inventory scales) and concurrent validity (correlations with CSAI-2 and PANAS scales). It is concluded that the Spanish version of the ISCCS has proved to be a valid and reliable instrument to identify and assess competitive coping strategies, allowing psychological intervention to improve athletes' performance.     

Emotional maturity,dispositional coping,and coping effectiveness among adolescent athletes

ObjectivesAlthough some scholars have suggested that coping is constrained by emotional maturity, little is known about the relationship between these constructs. In this paper we assessed a model that included emotional maturity, dispositional coping, and coping effectiveness. We predicted that emotional maturity would have a direct effect on coping effectiveness in addition to an indirect effect via task-, distraction-, and disengagement-oriented coping.DesignCross-sectional.MethodsSeven hundred and ninety athletes completed measures of emotional maturity, dispositional coping, and coping effectiveness. The data was analyzed using structural equation modeling, which revealed partial support for our model.ResultsSeveral of the predicted paths were significant. In particular, there was a significant path between emotional maturity and task-oriented coping, but the paths between emotional maturity and distraction- and disengagement-oriented coping were not significant.ConclusionOur findings indicate that how an athlete copes might be limited by his or her level of emotional maturity, which provides further evidence that coping is constrained by maturation among adolescent athletes.     

Different athletes cope differently during a sport competition: a cluster analysis of coping

This study aimed at examining the ways in which different athletes may combine the use of several coping strategies and at testing whether perceived goal attainment, affective states, and experience of control would differ across distinctive profiles of coping. A sample of 151 French-Canadian athletes out of 200 who were approached by a research assistant completed l’Inventaire des Strat gies de Coping en Comp tition Sportive (Gaudreau & Blondin, 2002a), the PANAS ( Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988), and a series of items measuring experience of control and perceived goal attainment. Results of a cluster analysis indicated that athletes could be classified in four groups according to their in-competition use of coping strategies. After controlling for athletes’ self-referenced goal attainment, their experience of control, positive affective state, and anger-dejection state differed significantly (p<0.008) across the four profiles of coping. Athletes who have used high level of task-oriented coping in combination with low level of disengagement-oriented coping reported better goal and psychological adjustment than athletes who have used high level of disengagement-oriented coping in combination with low level of task-oriented coping. Overall, these findings suggested that research should move from coping strategies to coping profiles in order to provide a deeper understanding of how different individuals cope with stress.     

Revisiting the changing and stable properties of coping utilization using latent class growth analysis: A longitudinal investigation with soccer referees

ObjectivesThis study examined the longitudinal factor invariance of problem-focused, disengagement-focused, and seeking social support coping to provide an unbiased estimation of the mean-level and differential stability of coping with longitudinal confirmatory factor analyses with mean structure. This study also examined different patterns of longitudinal coping utilization with Latent Class Growth Modeling (LCGM).MethodSoccer referees (N = 227), aged from 15 to 53 years, completed a French version of the Ways of Coping Checklist at three times over an entire season.ResultsThe structure of the coping dimensions could be assumed longitudinally invariant. The mean-level utilization of problem-focused coping did not change significantly over the season despite the presence of test–retest instability. Both disengagement and seeking support coping utilization have significantly decreased over time while displaying moderate test–retest stability. Results of LCGM revealed that, while most referees did not change their utilization of problem-focused coping, two subgroups have respectively increased and decreased their use of problem-focused coping. Two subgroups decreased significantly their use of both disengagement-oriented and seeking support coping whereas one subgroup maintained the same level of utilization.ConclusionsResults indicated that coping utilization displayed both trait-like and state-like properties, differing for distinct subgroups of referees. This research provided further evidence for the need of moving beyond the sole reliance on traditional analyses of change to recast the trait-like versus state-like debate on coping into a more idiosyncratic-nomothetic framework.     

A short and very short form of the physical self-inventory for adolescents: Development and factor validity

ObjectivesThe Physical Self-Inventory (PSI)—a French adaptation of the Fox and Corbin's [1989. The Physical Self-Perception Profile: Development and preliminary validation. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11, 408–430] Physical Self-Perception Profile—was originally developed for use with adults and no study has systematically verified its psychometric properties in adolescent populations. Additionally, this instrument remains too long to be efficiently completed in combination with multiple other instruments within extensive longitudinal or idiographic studies. The purpose of the present investigation was thus threefold: (a) testing the factor validity and reliability of the original PSI in a sample of adolescents; (b) developing and testing the factor validity and reliability of a very short (i.e., two items per scale) form of the PSI in a sample of adolescents; and (c) testing the equivalence of the factor pattern, structural parameters, latent mean structure, and criterion-related validity of both forms of the PSI.DesignStructural equation modeling approach.MethodTwo samples participated in this series of studies. In Study 1, a sample of 1018 adolescents completed the adult PSI (25 items) and was randomly split in two sub-samples. In Study 2, a new sample of 320 adolescents completed a very short form of the PSI (PSI-VSF). Factorial validity and gender and multigroup invariance of these instruments (PSI, PSI-VSF) were tested using confirmatory factorial analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM).ResultsIn Study 1, CFA and SEM analyses provided evidence for the factor validity and reliability of a short (PSI-SF: 18 items) and very short (PSI-VSF: 12 items) form of the PSI for adolescents. In Study 2, CFAs and SEMs supported the equivalence of the factor pattern, structural parameters, latent mean structure, and criterion-related validity of both forms of the PSI (i.e., PSI-SF, PSI-VSF).ConclusionThe present results thus provide preliminary evidence regarding the reliability and validity of a short and a very short form of the PSI for French adolescents.     

Batting on a sticky wicket: Identifying sources of stress and associated coping strategies for professional cricket batsmen

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to examine the sources of stress and associated coping strategies as reported by professional cricket batters.MethodsNine male professional cricket batters completed a semi-structured interview to examine their stress sources and associated coping strategies. A combination of inductive and deductive content analyses provided a detailed data analysis for the two areas of investigation.ResultsThe interviews revealed a total of 25 general dimensions for the sources of stress and 23 general dimensions for the coping strategies.ConclusionsDespite the overlap between stress sources and coping strategies to previous literature, practitioners need to be aware of the specific demands of the sport in which they are working. Future research suggestions are made regarding the study of stress and coping in sport.     

The assessment of autistic traits with the Autism Spectrum Quotient: Contribution of the French version to its construct validity

IntroductionThe Autism Spectrum Questionnaire (AQ, Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) is a self-report assessment tool aiming at screening autistic traits in normal intelligence adults. While numerous versions in other languages than English now exist, few factorial evidence do sustain the valid use of this instrument as it was conceived, based upon five distinct dimensions (Social skills, Communication, Attention to detail, Attention switching, Imagination); no such study exists with a French version of the AQ. The aim of our study is therefore to present the French version of the scale and to explore its factorial validity with confirmatory factorial analyses and, possibly, its invariance across men and women.MethodSeveral confirmatory factorial analyses, with the robust WLSMV estimator for categorical response format, were run on the questionnaire data from 788 French-speaking students (17–25 years old) at university faculties or schools for higher education in Belgium. The original five-factor measurement model of the AQ was assessed as well as alternative models. An exploratory factorial analysis was also applied to get more insight as to possible sources of misfit.ResultsNo measurement model – neither the original five-factor one nor any of the six other models tested – did produce statistics or fit indices close to significant values: there was no fit to the data. The internal consistency of the subscales was weak; the exploratory factorial analysis further confirmed that as much as ten factors were needed to explain 45% of the data variance.ConclusionOur results, with a French version of the scale, add to many other ones which suggest that the AQ is a too heterogeneous questionnaire with somewhat ill-defined dimensions and non specific/ambiguous items. The questionnaire should probably be shortened and its content realigned to core features of the autism spectrum.     

Coping as a building mechanism to explain the unique association of affect and goal motivation with changes in affective states

Background and objectives: In this study, we examined the mediating role of university students’ coping strategies in the unique/additive influence of affective states and goal motivation on upward changes in affect during a midterm exam period. Design: Using a short-term prospective design, key assumptions from the self-concordance model and the broaden-and-build theory were drawn upon to determine whether coping strategies are influenced by goal motivation and affective states, while also subsequently influencing short-term changes in affective states during a semester. Method: A sample of 272 students (79% females and 21% males) participated in a study in which they completed questionnaires twice during the semester. Results: Results of structural equation modeling, using a true latent change approach, have generally supported our hypotheses. Positive affective states and autonomous goal motivation prospectively predicted task-oriented coping which, in turn, was associated with increases in positive affect. Negative affective states and controlled goal motivation prospectively predicted disengagement-oriented coping which, in turn, was associated with increases in negative affect. Conclusion: Coping partially mediates the unique association of affect and goal motivation with changes in affective states of university students.     

Passionate hockey fans: Appraisals of,coping with,and attention paid to the 2012–2013 National Hockey League lockout

ObjectivesWe examined if harmonious and obsessive passion for watching hockey were differentially related to stress experiences during the 2012–2013 National Hockey League (NHL) lockout.DesignCross-sectional data were collected from 256 undergraduate hockey fans.MethodParticipants completed questionnaires that measured passion types, stress appraisals, coping, and how they attended to lockout-related information.ResultsObsessive passion was positively associated with stress appraisals, most types of coping, and with avoiding information about the lockout. Harmonious passion was unrelated to stress appraisals, showed few relationships with coping, and was positively related with monitoring lockout-related information. Structural equation modelling supported a model whereby threat appraisal mediated the relationship between obsessive passion and disengagement-oriented coping.ConclusionsAppraising, coping with, and paying attention to the NHL lockout among hockey fans varied to the extent that their passion for hockey was more harmonious or obsessive.     

Coping Style Following Acute Stress in Competitive Sport

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to ascertain coping styles among competitive athletes in response to various acute stressors. Specifically, the authors used a 134-item survey to measure approach and avoidance coping styles, with task-focused and emotion-focused coping tendencies nested hierarchically as subdimensions under each. Australian and U.S. college-aged participants indicated the extent to which they used approach, avoidance, task-focused, and emotion-focused coping strategies (a 4-factor model) in response to selected acute stressors experienced during sport competition. The authors computed confirmatory factor analysis to test the theoretically driven model. The criterion loading of .30 and above for each of the factors reduced the survey to 65 items. Findings indicated stronger links between the 2 approach constructs of task- and emotion-focused coping than between the 2 avoidance constructs of those subdimensions. The goodness-of-fit indices for the 4-factor model were 0.58 and 0.57 for Australian and U.S. samples, respectively, and .71 overall. Concomitant low correlations between the 2 approach (0.18) and the 2 avoidance dimensions (0.43) reflected relatively high residuals between stressors. In general, psychometric analyses suggest that coping style may be more prevalent in some situations than others, lending partial support for the transactional model of coping.     

Self-efficacy dimensions and job search strategies

ObjectiveThis study explored the paths between dimensions of self-efficacy and job search strategies. An examination of social cognitive career theory and career adaptability enabled us to consider several paths between dimensions of self-efficacy and job search strategies, as well as among self-efficacy dimensions.MethodScales measuring these concepts were administered to a sample of 120 jobseekers.ResultsStructural analyses allowed us to confirm expected paths. Barrier coping efficacy is significantly related to career decision self-efficacy. Career decision self-efficacy and job search self-efficacy are related to exploratory strategy and to job search strategy.ConclusionResults are discussed with reference to the literature and in terms of practical implications. They highlight the need to implement interventions in order to increase barrier coping efficacy and career decision self-efficacy.     

Perceived anger profiles in table tennis players: Relationship with burnout and coping

ObjectivesThis study aimed to identify dispositional anger profiles in table-tennis players and examine whether participants from distinct profiles significantly differed on athlete burnout symptoms and coping.DesignA quantitative cross-sectional design was used in the present study.MethodA sample of 244 table tennis players (M_age = 31.29; SD = 9.72) completed a series of self-report questionnaires designed to assess anger (the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory; STAXI-2), coping (the Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport; CICS) and athlete burnout symptoms (the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire; ABQ).ResultsThree-profile solution showed best fit to data, to analyze them LPA models were run by first testing a one-class model and then exploring models with more classes in order to identify the anger profiles: The anger profiles were labelled as: (a) High anger profile comprising players with moderate scores of temperament, external expression, external control, reaction and high scores, internal expression and control (n = 91); (b) Overwhelmed anger profile comprising players with high scores on temperament, reaction, internal and external expression, and low scores of internal and external control (n = 13); and (c) Low anger profile comprising players with low levels of temperament, reaction, internal and external expression and high levels of internal and external control (n = 140). Results of BCH method revealed significant differences across profiles in athlete burnout symptoms and coping. In particular, table-tennis players from the high anger profile reported significant higher scores of physical and emotional exhaustion, sport devaluation, reduced sense of accomplishment, resignation, distancing and venting emotions than players belonging to the low anger profile.ConclusionsThree different anger profiles among table-tennis players emerged from the cluster analyses. Players from the overwhelmed anger profile were characterized by the worst psychological adjustment based on their scores of coping and athlete burnout symptoms. Thus, it would be interesting to develop empirically proven interventions designed to help such athletes modify their maladaptive anger profile in order to maximize their psychological adjustment to the inherent demands of table-tennis.     

Three-dimensional model of performance anxiety: Tests of the adaptive potential of the regulatory dimension of anxiety

ObjectivesTo predict the complex anxiety-performance dynamics, Cheng and associates (Cheng, Hardy, & Markland, 2009, 2011; Cheng, Hardy, & Woodman, 2011) proposed a three-dimensional model of anxiety that highlighted the adaptive potential of anxiety, and was supported with regard to cross-cultural factorial validity and predictive validity in the context of sports performance. In particular, this anxiety model included a regulatory dimension (reflected by perceived control) in addition to the conventional intensity-oriented dimensions of cognitive and physiological anxiety.DesignTo further examine the characteristics of the hypothesized adaptive potential of the regulatory dimension of anxiety, a series of three studies were conducted to investigate the relationship mainly between the regulatory dimension and three psychological variables proposed to be related to performance and stress, namely, perfectionism, self-talk and coping strategy.MethodChinese sports participants and dancers completed self-report measures. Hierarchical multiple regression was adopted for data analysis.ResultsThe findings showed that the regulatory dimension of anxiety was positively predicted by relatively adaptive dimensions of perfectionism (personal standards) and self-talk (motivational and instructional self-talk), and positively predicted approach coping.ConclusionsOverall, these data support the hypothesized characteristics of the adaptive potential underlying the regulatory dimension of anxiety. Future research and applied implications are suggested.     

Factorial structure of the kidcope in Hong Kong adolescents

The Kidcope (A. Spirito, L. J. Stark, & C. Williams, 1988), a brief screening measure of coping strategies for children and adolescents, was subjected to exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses in a sample of adolescents in Hong Kong. A 2-factor model was found to fit the data when only the 2 emotional regulation items were treated separately and were allowed to load on the 2 different factors. Further analyses showed that factor loadings, factor variances, and factor covariance were invariant across age and gender. On the basis of the factor analyses, the authors created 2 composite scores, representing control-oriented and escape-oriented coping strategies. Implications for the use of the Kidcope in research and preventive intervention are discussed.     

Contesting orientations,self-determined motivation,and sportspersonship: Further validation of the contesting orientations scale

ObjectivesTo examine the factorial validity of the Contesting Orientations Scale (COS) in a large sample of intercollegiate student-athletes, as well as to extend evidence of the COS’ concurrent validity by examining its relationship to autonomous and controlled motivations in sport. The ability of contesting orientations to predict sportspersonship over and above autonomous and controlled motivations was also examined.DesignCross-sectional and correlational.MethodsFive hundred and forty-four intercollegiate US athletes (57.2% male) from individual and team sports completed measures of contesting orientations, autonomous and controlled motivations, and sportspersonship.ResultsConfirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported the factorial validity of the COS, while correlational results supported its concurrent construct validity, with autonomous motivation associated with higher levels of partnership orientation and controlled motivation associated with higher levels of war orientation. In addition, sequential regression analyses supported the predictive utility of contesting orientations, with partnership orientation emerging as a significant positive predictor of four – and war orientation a negative predictor of three – dimensions of sportspersonship. Mediation analyses suggested that contesting orientations may partially mediate the relationship between autonomous and controlled motivations for some dimensions of sportspersonship.ConclusionsThe COS is a valid and reliable measure of contesting orientations. Partnership and war contesting orientations, moreover, add significantly to the prediction of sportspersonship over and above autonomous and controlled motivations. In practice, if the goal is to promote good sportspersonship, coaches and other adults involved in competitive sport should emphasize a partnership contesting orientation in addition to more autonomous forms of motivation.     

Personal assessment of intimacy in relationships: Validity and measurement invariance across gender

IntroductionIntimacy is central in close relationships and a variety of definitions and instruments exist in scientific literature, making this concept complex to investigate. Furthermore, gender differences were identified in the definition and experience of intimacy.ObjectivesThis study aims to confirm the three-factor structure of the personal assessment of intimacy in relationships (PAIR, Schaefer & Olson, 1981), commonly used in research and marital therapy, developed by Moore et al. (1998) and to examine the measurement equivalence of the scale across gender.MethodA confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed on the responses of 313 women and 251 men in committed relationships in a French population. Measurement equivalence of the scale across gender was then conducted with the best-fitting model.ResultsThe results of CFA and post-hoc analyses revealed that the three-factor model revised with 18 items was the best fit to the data: (1) engagement (10 items), (2) communication (5 items), (3) shared friends (3 items). PAIR-18 displayed a lack of metric and scalar invariance across gender but estimated means of latent variables is not very different between the full invariant model and the unconstraint models.ConclusionNevertheless, consideration of gender differences in the construct of intimacy is very important for theoretical research on intimacy in romantic relationships and for the interventions of marital therapists based on intimacy.     

Hitting the wall in the marathon: Phenomenological characteristics and associations with expectancy,gender, and running history

ObjectivesThis study was designed to identify salient characteristics of hitting the wall in the marathon and to assess the frequency of self-reported occurrence of the wall as a function of expectancy, gender, and running history.DesignA correlational research design was used.MethodParticipants (218 men and 97 women) from three Eastern Seaboard marathons in the United States responded to items regarding general demographic information and expectation of the wall prior to the marathon. After the marathon, participants were asked to report the occurrence of the wall, whether they experienced each of 24 potential characteristics of the wall, and the impact of these characteristics on performance.ResultsApproximately 43% of participants reported that they hit the wall during the marathon. Logistic regression analysis indicated that generalized fatigue, unintentionally slowing pace, desire to walk, and shifting focus to survival were salient characteristics of the wall. Logistic regression analyses indicated that male gender, expectancy of hitting the wall, shorter distance of longest training run, and previous episodes of hitting the wall were associated with reports of hitting the wall.ConclusionsSeveral robust characteristics of the wall were identified. Occurrence of the wall phenomenon appears to be more prevalent among men than among women and may be influenced by expectancy.     

Coping strategies of former prisoners of war mediate the intergenerational transmission of posttraumatic stress symptoms

Objectives: Certain coping strategies, characterized by emotional coping or disengagement/ avoidance, have been linked to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and PTSD symptoms (PTSS). However, the role of primary trauma victims’ coping strategies in the intergenerational transmission of PTSS is still lacking. This prospective study assessed the mediating role of former prisoners of war’s (ex-POWs) coping strategies in the associations between ex-POWs’ PTSS and their adult offspring’s secondary PTSS in relation to their fathers’ captivity and psychiatric symptomatology.

Design: A correlational, prospective study.

Method: A sample from the 1973 Yom Kippur War composed of 79 Israeli ex-POW father-offspring dyads completed self-report measures. Fathers were assessed in 2001 and 2008, and their adult offspring participated in 2014.

Results: ex-POWs’ problem-focused coping strategies of active coping and planning, as well as disengagement-oriented coping strategies of alcohol and substance use and venting of emotions, were negatively associated with offspring’s PTSS and psychiatric symptomatology. Importantly, ex-POWs’ venting of emotions mediated the link between ex-POWs’ PTSS and their offspring’s secondary PTSS.

Conclusions: Ex-POWs with PTSS might expose their offspring to dysregulated mood, behaviors, and cognitions. Special awareness should be given to the venting of emotions coping style as possible mechanism for the intergenerational transmission of captivity-related PTSS.     

Emotion Regulation Questionnaire for use with athletes

ObjectivesThree studies examine the factorial validity, internal consistency, test–retest stability, and criterion validity of the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ: Gross & John, 2003) for use with athletes.DesignFactorial validity, internal consistency, test–retest stability and criterion validity of the ERQ were examined over three stages, using three separate samples.MethodIn stage 1 the factorial validity and internal consistency of the ERQ subscales were examined based on responses from 433 sport participants. In stage 2, 176 sport participants completed the ERQ on two occasions separated by an interval of two weeks. In stage 3, the criterion validity of the ERQ was examined. Sport participants (n = 88) completed the ERQ and reported the intensity, frequency and direction of a range of emotions experienced when competing in sport.ResultsConfirmatory factor analysis results lend some support to a two-factor model when reappraisal and suppression are allowed to correlate. Alpha coefficients were acceptable. Test–retest stability analyses indicated poor agreement and a greater influence of situational, as opposed to trait factors, in the variance of item scores on the second test administration. In addition, results were partially consistent with findings of Gross and John (2003): reappraisal scores were associated with pleasant emotions, but suppression scores were not associated with unpleasant emotions.ConclusionResults provide mixed support for the validity of the ERQ in sport. Because the ERQ is intended to assess stable patterns of emotion regulation, the instability of items is a concern and reasons for this require further investigation.