RELATIVE CHANGES IN INTELLIGENCE FROM 13 TO 18: Results

H ärnqvist , K. Relative changes in intelligence from 13 to 18. II. Results. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1968, 9, 65–82.—Relative changes in intelligence from 13 to 18 are shown to be related to differences in education and to some extent also home background. The relationship is stronger for general intellectual level than for a component contrasting spatial with verbal performance. Alternative interpretations of results are discussed against the background described in Part I.     

Aging, attention, and intelligence

The aims of this study were (a) to find out if attentional ability factors that are separate from the well-established ability factors (e.g., fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, and short-term acquisition and retrieval function) can be identified, and (b) to establish, through the use of part correlations, whether attentional abilities play a role in the changes in fluid and crystallized intelligence that occur with increasing age. A battery of 36 tests (19 psychometric tests and 17 measures of attentional processes) were given to 100 people. 20 of whom were in each age decade between 20 and 70. Results indicated that three attentional factors--Search, Concentration, and Attentional Flexibility--exist at the primary-ability level and that all three define fluid intelligence at the second-order level. Results also indicate that the decline in fluid intelligence with increasing age disappears if attentional factors are parted-out. Similarly, the increase in crystallized intelligence with increasing age becomes even greater if one controls for attentional processes. I conclude that changes in attentional processes play an important part in changes in human intelligence with age.     

Achievement of Children in Orphan Homes as Revealed by the Stanford Achievement Test

Regression surface analysis was used to examine relationships between teacher perceptions of school related behavior and children's academic achievement at different levels of intelligence, social status, and family environment. Data were collected as part of a national survey of 11-, 12-, and 15-year-old English schoolchildren (N = approximately 3000). The regression surfaces were constructed from models which examined possible linear, curvilinear, and interaction relations between the variables. In the analysis the Jackknife technique was used to adjust the significance levels. Two propositions are suggested by the results that (a) at each level of intelligence and social environment, changes in the teacher perceptions of student behavior are associated with modest changes in academic achievement, and (b) at each level of teacher perceptions, increases in intelligence and social environment scores are related to sizable increments in academic achievement.     

A triarchic theory of intellectual development during adulthood

A triarchic theory of intellectual development during adulthood is proposed. The theory comprises three parts: a contextual part that emphasizes the role of intelligence in successful adaptation to the environment; a componential part that specifies the mental mechanisms and processes underlying intelligent behavior; and an experiential part that indicates that intelligence is best manifested in instances in which the task or situation requiring the application of these processes is relatively novel or is becoming automatized. A selective and brief review of the literature on adult intellectual development is provided as evidence for the triarchic theory. The triarchic theory is then compared with four other theoretical approaches to adult intellectual development. It is argued that the triarchic theory provides new insights regarding the ways in which intelligence changes from early to middle to late adulthood and suggests certain properties of tasks and situations that make them more or less useful as measures of intelligence at various points in adult intellectual development.     

Generational gains on the Draw-a-Person IQ scores: A three-decade comparison from Turkey

In 1977 Draw-a-Person test was administered to fifth grade school children in a city and its surrounding rural villages in Turkey. In 2010, more than thirty years later, the test was administered again to a corresponding group of fifth grade children in the same locations. It is rare that we get scores from the ‘same’ population over a period of more than three decades. This paper reports such a comparison over time and draws attention to continuities and changes that provide us with insights into the effects of social change and development on human performance. In line with the commonly reported increases in intelligence test scores over time, gains in the DAP scores were found. At the same time, the variations along the rural-urban and socio-economic development levels obtained in 1970s were maintained in 2010. The comparative results point to greater gains at the lower part of the IQ distribution, in the less developed areas, decreasing the overall variance among the different groups.     

The intelligent infant: Theoretical implications

In the present essay, the fact that preferences for visual novelty during infancy are related to later performance on intelligence tests was interpreted to mean that intelligence is continuous from infancy. It was suggested that the bases of both continuity and the general factor in intelligence reside in the same small set of basic cognitive processes. It was also noted that intelligent behavior on the part of the infant raises a question about the relative importance of automatic and effortful processes in intelligence. The development of a valid test of infant intelligence was seen as an aid to clarifying the role of hereditary and environmental influences on intelligence and in furthering our understanding of mental retardation. In brief, the manner in which infants distribute their attention to novel and previously exposed stimuli reveals the origins of cognition. The origins of cognition are the origins of intelligence.     

团体儿童智力测验的编制：目的、准则及其衡鉴

论文阐述了选择编制与世界著名的个别施测的韦克斯勒儿童智力测验相似的但团体施行的儿童智力测验的理由;论述了指导新编测验的五条准则以及选题过程;还报告了对新编测验试用稿的几次相继的因素分析及其它的信度、效度检验结果。     

情绪智力对初中生心理适应的影响：一项追踪研究

为考察情绪智力对初中生心理适应的影响及人际素质与逆境信念的中介作用,对466名初中生进行为期半年的追踪调查。结果显示：（1）情绪智力、人际素质、逆境信念和心理适应间存在同时性和继时性正相关;（2）情绪智力正向预测初中生心理适应;（3）人际素质、逆境信念在情绪智力与初中生心理适应间起链式中介作用。追踪研究结果表明,在延时条件下,情绪智力能够依次通过人际素质、逆境信念来进一步影响初中生心理适应。     

Recognition memory and intelligence

The assumption that individual differences in recognition memory are associated with individual differences in intelligence was explored by administering intelligence tests and tests of immediate visual recognition memory to a sample of 52 5-year-old children expected to vary widely from one another in intelligence. Each child was given the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (Form L) and two tests of immediate recognition memory: one test for 27 abstract patterns and one test for 27 unfamiliar cartoon faces. The mean PPVT-IQ for the sample was in the average range at 98.1. Interindividual variability in IQ proved to be high as reflected in the group SD of 22.6, with scores ranging from 40 to 136. The recognition tasks proved to be of moderate difficulty. Individual differences in memory for patterns were highly related to memory for faces (r = .76), indicating that the overall recognition test was reliable. The most important result of the present study was the strong association between recognition memory performance and PPVT-IQ of .70. The relation between recognition memory and IQ could not be accounted for by the inclusion of a few very low IQ children, since the association remained high at .61 when children with IQs below 75 were omitted from analysis. In short, the present results indicate that immediate recognition memory is highly associated with intelligence.     

Beyond IQ: A latent state-trait analysis of general intelligence, dynamic decision making, and implicit learning

The present study investigated cognitive performance measures beyond IQ. In particular, we investigated the psychometric properties of dynamic decision making variables and implicit learning variables and their relation with general intelligence and professional success. N = 173 employees from different companies and occupational groups completed two standard intelligence tests, two dynamic decision making tasks, and two implicit learning tasks at two measurement occasions each. We used structural equation models to test latent state-trait measurement models and the relation between constructs. The results suggest that dynamic decision making and implicit learning are substantially related with general intelligence. Furthermore, general intelligence is the best predictor for income, social status, and educational attainment. Dynamic decision making can predict supervisor ratings even beyond general intelligence.     

A longitudinal study of sex differences in intelligence at ages 7, 11 and 16 years

This paper presents the results of a longitudinal study of sex differences in intelligence as a test of Lynn’s (1994) hypothesis that from the age of 16 years males develop higher average intelligence than females. The results show that at the ages of 7 and 11 years girls have an IQ advantage of approximately 1 IQ point, but at the age of 16 years this changes in the same boys and girls to an IQ advantage of 1.8 IQ points for boys.     

Stress affects the selection of relevant from irrelevant stimuli

Two experiments were used to examine the effects of stress on latent inhibition (LI; poorer learning with a previously exposed irrelevant stimulus rather than a novel stimulus). In Experiment 1, stress was induced in college students by threatening participants' self-esteem with a difficult number series completion test that was related to intelligence. In Experiment 2, the participants were job seekers who were either informed or not that the LI test was part of the selection process. In both experiments, LI was attenuated in high- as compared with low-stressed participants. The results suggest that stress and/or anxiety impairs the inhibition of irrelevant-preexposed stimuli. Implications for understanding the impaired selective attentional processes in schizophrenia and schizotypy are discussed.     

Self- and other-estimates of multiple abilities in Britain and Turkey: a cross-cultural comparison of subjective ratings of intelligence

This study is part of a programmatic research effort into the determinants of self-assessed abilities. It examined cross-cultural differences in beliefs about intelligence and self- and other-estimated intelligence in two countries at extreme ends of the European continent. In all, 172 British and 272 Turkish students completed a three-part questionnaire where they estimated their parents', partners' and own multiple intelligences (Gardner (10) and Sternberg (3)). They also completed a measure of the 'big five' personality scales and rated six questions about intelligence. The British sample had more experience with IQ tests than the Turks. The majority of participants in both groups did not believe in sex differences in intelligence but did think there were race differences. They also believed that intelligence was primarily inherited. Participants rated their social and emotional intelligence highly (around one standard deviation above the norm). Results suggested that there were more cultural than sex differences in all the ratings, with various interactions mainly due to the British sample differentiating more between the sexes than the Turks. Males rated their overall, verbal, logical, spatial, creative and practical intelligence higher than females. Turks rated their musical, body-kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence as well as existential, naturalistic, emotional, creative, and practical intelligence higher than the British. There was evidence of participants rating their fathers' intelligence on most factors higher than their mothers'. Factor analysis of the ten Gardner intelligences yield two clear factors: cognitive and social intelligence. The first factor was impacted by sex but not culture; it was the other way round for the second factor. Regressions showed that five factors predicted overall estimates: sex (male), age (older), test experience (has done tests), extraversion (strong) and openness (strong). Results are discussed in terms of the growing literature in the field.     

Does g variance change in adulthood? Testing the age de-differentiation hypothesis across sex

In the last decade, changes in the structure of intelligence across the life-span has become a central topic in the research on human intelligence. One of the main hypotheses that has arisen to account for such changes has been the age de-differentiation hypothesis [Balinsky, Genetic Psychology Monographs 23 1941, 191]. It predicts an increase in the importance of g, and a decrease in the number and importance of the lower-order abilities from early maturity to senescence. Despite of the research effort to test this hypothesis, no study has ever been conducted controlling by sex. For that purpose, males and females of the Spanish standardisation sample of the WAIS-III were analysed separately. Results show that the importance of g does not change with age irrespective of sex. Thus, the age de-differentiation hypothesis is rejected for both males and females. The indifferentiation hypothesis is supported as a more appropriate view of the changes in the structure of intelligence across adulthood.     

加工速度、工作记忆与液态智力发展的关系

有关儿童液态智力 (fluid intelligence) 发展的年龄特征早已有了较明确的一致性结论。然而,儿童液态智力发展的机制问题到现在仍知之甚少。早期零星的研究观察到,随着儿童年龄的增长,其信息加工速度变快,工作记忆能力和液态智力亦提高。由此可推测,对儿童液态智力与加工速度、工作记忆能力关系的考察有助于阐明儿童液态智力发展的机制问题。 近10多年已有不少研究分别探讨了液态智力与加工速度、液态智力与工作记忆的关系,并已开始同时探讨液态智力与加工速度和工作记忆的关系。但令人惊讶的是,有关儿童液态智力发展与加工速度、工作记忆关系问题的综合探讨几成空白,到目前为止,仅有极少量的研究 (Fry 和Hale, 1996; Miller和Vernon, 1996) 探讨了这一问题,其中Fry 和Hale (1996) 还提出了一个模型 (the developmental cascade model) 试图解释儿童液态智力发展的机制,随后Fry 和Hale (2000)进一步阐明并坚持了这一观点。Fry 和Hale的观点是,儿童液态智力的发展取决于儿童工作记忆能力的发展,而工作记忆能力的发展又进一步取决于儿童信息加工速度能力的发展。这就是说,加工速度和工作记忆是儿童液态智力发展的两个关键因素,其中加工速度又是第一作用因素。Fry 和Hale (1996, 2000) 提出了她们的观点后,后续研究在国际上仍十分少见。但来自于发展领域之外的研究似乎不支持Fry 和Hale (1996, 2000)的观点。研究发现(Conway et al., 2002),仅工作记忆能很好预测液态智力的变化,而加工速度不能很好预测液态智力的变化。 该研究从南京市中小学随机选取了243名10到18岁的健康儿童（男生127名,女生116名）。所有被试共完成7项任务,包括2项液态智力任务测试（瑞文标准推理测验和卡特尔文化公平智力测验,以原始分作为数据分析指标）、3项加工速度任务测试（数字抄写、字母串比较和符号串比较）、2项工作记忆任务（数字工作记忆和视空间工作记忆）。验证性因素分析发现这7项任务所测量的正是液态智力、加工速度和工作记忆这3个因子,且这3个因子间存在显著的相关。但随后的结构方程模型分析表明,从工作记忆到液态智力间存在显著路径,但从加工速度到液态智力并不存在显著路径,工作记忆几乎可完全解释儿童液态智力的发展变化（85.4%）,且可以解释81.6%的加工速度的发展变化量。仅当不考虑工作记忆这一因素时,加工速度才能解释50%的液态智力的发展变化。这表明,工作记忆是儿童液态智力发展的基础,而加工速度则不是。这一结果在以三个变量的平均标准分数为基础所进行的层级回归分析 (hierarchical regression analyses)中亦得到了证实。 总体上,该研究并不支持Fry 和Hale (1996, 2000)的观点。工作记忆是儿童液态智力发展的关键因素,而加工速度则不是。加工速度与液态智力存在显著相关,其原因可能在于,加工速度反映的是儿童液态智力的同一年龄内个体差异而不是年龄间差异（即发展性变化）。本研究同时对工作记忆之所以是儿童液态智力发展的基础的可能原因进行了讨论。     

The comparability of intelligence test results: Group- and individual-level comparisons of seven intelligence tests

A significant body of research has demonstrated that IQs obtained from different intelligence tests substantially correlate at the group level. Yet, there is minimal research investigating whether different intelligence tests yield comparable results for individuals. Examining this issue is paramount given that high-stakes decisions are based on individual test results. Consequently, we investigated whether seven current and widely used intelligence tests yielded comparable results for individuals between the ages of 4–20 years. Results mostly indicated substantial correlations between tests, although several significant mean differences at the group level were identified. Results associated with individual-level comparability indicated that the interpretation of exact IQ scores cannot be empirically supported, as the 95% confidence intervals could not be reliably replicated with different intelligence tests. Similar patterns also appeared for the individual-level comparability of nonverbal and verbal intelligence factor scores. Furthermore, the nominal level of intelligence systematically predicted IQ differences between tests, with above- and below-average IQ scores associated with larger differences as compared to average IQ scores. Analyses based on continuous data confirmed that differences appeared to increase toward the above-average IQ score range. These findings are critical as these are the ranges in which diagnostic questions most often arise in practice. Implications for test interpretation and test construction are discussed.     

A moderate financial incentive can increase effort,but not intelligence test performance in adult volunteers

A positive correlation between self-reported test-taking motivation and intelligence test performance has been reported. Additionally, some financial incentive experimental evidence suggests that intelligence test performance can be improved, based on the provision of financial incentives. However, only a small percentage of the experimental research has been conducted with adults. Furthermore, virtually none of the intelligence experimental research has measured the impact of financial incentives on test-taking motivation. Consequently, we conducted an experiment with 99 adult volunteers who completed a battery of intelligence tests under two conditions: no financial incentive and financial incentive (counterbalanced). We also measured self-reported test-taking importance and effort at time 1 and time 2. The financial incentive was observed to impact test-taking effort statistically significantly. By contrast, no statistically significant effects were observed for the intelligence test performance scores. Finally, the intelligence test scores were found to correlate positively with both test-taking importance (r_c = .28) and effort (r_c = .37), although only effort correlated uniquely with intelligence (partial r_c = .26). In conjunction with other empirical research, it is concluded that a financial incentive can increase test-taking effort. However, the potential effects on intelligence test performance in adult volunteers seem limited.     

Ethnicity,school attitudes,intelligence and academic achievement

Regression surface analysis was used to examine relations between school-related attitudes and measures of academic achievement at different levels of intellectual ability, for children from different Australian ethnic groups. The sample included 660 eleven-year-old children from lower social status families, with 250 Anglo Australian children, 170 Greek, 120 Southern Italian, and 120 English children. Regression surfaces were constructed from models that examined possible linear, interaction, and curvilinear relations between the variables. The findings suggest the propositions that: (a) at each level of intelligence, increases in the affective component of school attitudes are not associated with changes in academic achievement, (b) at each level of the affective component of school attitudes, increments in intelligence test scores are related to increases in academic achievement scores, and (c) the relations between academic achievement, intelligence, and the cognitive-behavioral component of school attitudes vary for children from different ethnic groups. The results suggest that the manipulation of the cognitive-behavioral aspects of school attitudes may influence the academic performance of low social status children from different ethnic groups but educational programs that focus on the affective components of school attitudes may not be effective in changing children's academic achievement.     

Implications of test revisions for research

Test revisions are increasingly common in psychology and neuropsychology in particular. However, such revisions may alter in complex ways the kind of information obtained, and they may assess traits, abilities, and conditions in ways different from earlier versions. This article outlines some of the problems associated with the revision of tests facing clinicians and researchers. Three broad classes of revision are considered. Part 1 considers the aging of tests, part 2 concerns the aging of participants, and part 3 considers changes in test format. Although the article focuses largely on measures of intelligence and personality, the issues addressed in the article apply to other tests and assessment domains as well.