The prediction of political evaluation and voting preference: A multidimensional analysis

Two separate studies, using college students in a political behavior class, tested the relationship between evaluation and voting preferences on the one hand and the dimensions emerging from a multidimensional scaling of similarity judgments for a set of nationally known political figures. Both studies found that political evaluation and voting preferences were highly predictable from three major dimensions underlying political perception. In Study I (n = 64), the subjects' self-ratings of liberal-conservatism yielded individual differences in the predictability of activity and potency from the political dimensions as well as differences in the relationships among evaluation, activity, and potency. In Study II (n = 51), the subjects' own authoritarianism indicated differences in the manner in which political figures were perceived in the multidimensional space.     

Attention, similarity, and the identification-categorization relationship

A unified quantitative approach to modeling subjects' identification and categorization of multidimensional perceptual stimuli is proposed and tested. Two subjects identified and categorized the same set of perceptually confusable stimuli varying on separable dimensions. The identification data were modeled using Shepard's (1957) multidimensional scaling-choice framework. This framework was then extended to model the subjects' categorization performance. The categorization model, which generalizes the context theory of classification developed by Medin and Schaffer (1978), assumes that subjects store category exemplars in memory. Classification decisions are based on the similarity of stimuli to the stored exemplars. It is assumed that the same multidimensional perceptual representation underlies performance in both the identification and categorization paradigms. However, because of the influence of selective attention, similarity relationships change systematically across the two paradigms. Some support was gained for the hypothesis that subjects distribute attention among component dimensions so as to optimize categorization performance. Evidence was also obtained that subjects may have augmented their category representations with inferred exemplars. Implications of the results for theories of multidimensional scaling and categorization are discussed.     

Dimensions and Categories Underlying Thinking About College Student Types1

Previous work on implicit personality theory and the college student culture suggests that thinking about college student types should include academic involvement and social involvement dimensions. Further, positive and negative social, positive academic, and oppositional clusters of types were predicted based on studies of high school crowds. Using 85 college student type labels as stimuli, a free‐sorting method coupled with multidimensional scaling and hierarchical clustering analyses provided support for these hypotheses. Also, the results suggest convergence in the cognitive structure underlying perception of college student types across major demographic categories.     

Mapping Students' Perceptions of Interesting Class Lessons

Students' perspectives about their experiences as students are potentially valuable resources for teachers and researchers. In this study middle-school students were asked, ‘What are the features of interesting class lessons?’ Students' responses were allocated to categories of similar semantic meaning and representative statements were selected from each category. The students then sorted and ranked the representative statements, generating numerical data suitable for cluster anal-ysis and multidimensional scaling. The cluster analysis generated three main clusters: (a) teachers, (b) individual learning, and (c) social learning. Each main cluster contained smaller clusters that indicated students' concern with issues such as the personal qualities of teachers and self-efficacy. The multidimensional scaling analysis generated a perceptual map that was interpreted to contain two dimensions: (d) student-teacher and (e) individual-social learning. The structure of the perceptual map stimulates questions about the connections that students might make between students' learning and teachers' teaching strategies, as well as students' understandings about the learning opportunities provided by social learning activities.     

IMAGES OF CRIME: A MULTIDIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN CRIME PERCEPTION

Implicit cognitive representations of crime were studied using a multidimensional scaling procedure, in order to determine (a) the dimensions underlying crime perception, (b) the relationship between such subjective dimensions and the objective seriousness and frequency of crimes, (c) the extent to which a priori crime categories such as offences against persons, property or public order are separated in cognitive space, and (d) the relationship between the judges' demographic, attitudinal, cognitive and personality characteristics and crime perception. Four dimensions, concern, violence, commonness and intentionality were found to underlie perceptions of crime. Objective crime characteristics such as seriousness were only loosely related to subjective representations and a priori crime categories were significantly differentiated in this cognitive space. The subjects' sex, political orientation and personality were significantly related to crime perception. The results are discussed in terms of the applicability of these techniques to the study of natural cognitions of crime by such groups are juries, judges, policemen, victims and criminals.     

Words can slow down category learning

Words have been shown to influence many cognitive tasks, including category learning. Most demonstrations of these effects have focused on instances in which words facilitate performance. One possibility is that words augment representations, predicting an across the-board benefit of words during category learning. We propose that words shift attention to dimensions that have been historically predictive in similar contexts. Under this account, there should be cases in which words are detrimental to performance. The results from two experiments show that words impair learning of object categories under some conditions. Experiment 1 shows that words hurt performance when learning to categorize by texture. Experiment 2 shows that words also hurt when learning to categorize by brightness, leading to selectively attending to shape when both shape and hue could be used to correctly categorize stimuli. We suggest that both the positive and negative effects of words have developmental origins in the history of word usage while learning categories. [corrected]     

PATTERN PERCEPTION,CONCEPTUAL SPACES,AND DIMENSIONAL LIMITATIONS ON INFORMATION PROCESSING

A conceptual space was defined as the collection of all linearly inde- pendent psychological dimensions underlying the multidimensional scaling of a set of tasks. When a single subject scaled a sample of random polygons under fifteen different task conditions, a total of ten linearly independent dimensions was obtained. The number of obtained dimensions in individual tasks ranged between 1 and 3. The results suggest the existence o f a dimensional limitation upon information processing in MDS studies.     

A multidimensional scaling program for distinctiveness and similarity based on stimulus classification and information measurement

When observers classify a set of multidimensional items on the basis of similarity, they generate information measures that are isomorphic to item vectors whose lengths correspond to the judged distinctiveness of each item and whose angles define the position of each item in a euclidean similarity space. The PROSCALE computer program calculates the item vectors and spatial positions from similarity classification data and then generates and rotates orthogonal dimensions of the similarity space. PROSCALE can also use variables associated with each item to generate oblique dimensions that span the space. PROSCALE carries out multidimensional similarity scaling or unidimensional magnitude estimation scaling on as many as 70 items for as many as 50 observers.     

Judgment Processes and Interpersonal Conflict Related to Societal Problem Solutions1

An application of multidimensional scaling to judgments about potential solutions to the overpopulation problem yielded two dimensions: Voluntary versus involuntary and economic versus noneconomic. The location of the “solutions” in this two dimensional space was closely related to their judged acceptability, for both original and cross-validation samples. The two-dimensional coordinates of the “solutions” were then used as implicit cue values in a “lens model” analysis of potential conflict among the subjects. This analysis indicated that judgmental inconsistency was likely to be the major source of conflict for these subjects.     

Qualitative hemispheric differences in semantic category matching.

A unilateral category matching task with words as stimuli was employed to investigate semantic processing in the right and left hemispheres (RH, LH). An overall right visual field (RVF)/LH dominance was observed and performances were better than chance, also in the left visual field (LVF)/RH. A qualitative analysis of reaction times with individual differences multidimensional scaling (INDSCAL) revealed that LVF/RH INDSCAL solutions were significantly more differentiated in structure than RVF/LH solutions in terms of number and size of dimensions. These findings support a depth of activation hypothesis of hemispheric processing, with the LH rapidly and focally and the RH slowly and diffusely activating the semantic network.     

MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING WITH A PRIORI DIMENSIONS

W aern Y. Multidimensional scaling with a priori dimensions. Scand. J. Psychol., 1972, 13 , 178–189.—This paper presents a method of multidimensional scaling by direct similarity estimates. The method is presented as an alternative to other multidimensional scaling methods, when hypotheses can be made concerning the dimensions underlying the perceptual variation. The method is used with five different sets of stimuli and compared, to an as to dimensions assumption-free component analysis, based on a vector model. The two methods resulted in similar configurations in most cases. One difference was found in a colour material, where the assumed dimensions could be regarded not to be orthogonal to each other. Here the a priori scaling revealed the assumed configuration as projected on the oblique axes whereas the component analysis could not give this information.     

Using a multidimensional scaling approach to investigate the underlying basis of ease of learning judgments

Jönsson, F. U. & Lindström, B. R. (2009) Using a multidimensional scaling approach to investigate the underlying basis of ease of learning judgments. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 51, 103–108. Before studying a material it is of strategic importance to first assess its difficulty, so called Ease of Learning (EOL) judgments. A multidimensional scaling (MDS) procedure was used to investigate the underlying basis of EOL judgments for 24 nouns, which to the authors’ knowledge has not been done before. In addition, Judgments of Learning (JOL) followed by a free recall test was performed. The MDS analysis indicated that EOL judgments for the nouns are based on multiple cues (dimensions), namely word length, frequency, and concreteness. Moreover, the concreteness values of the nouns, as judged by an independent group, were correlated with both the JOLs and the concreteness dimension from the MDS analysis. This indicates that EOLs and JOLs for single words are based, to some extent, on the same cues.     

Perceptual dimensions of tactile surface texture: A multidimensional scaling analysis

The purpose of this study was to examine the subjective dimensionality of tactile surface texture perception. Seventeen tactile stimuli, such as wood, sandpaper, and velvet, were moved across the index finger of the subject, who sorted them into categories on the basis of perceived similarity. Multidimensional scaling (MDS) techniques were then used to position the stimuli in a perceptual space on the basis of combined data of 20 subjects. A three-dimensional space was judged to give a satisfactory representation of the data. Subjects’ ratings of each stimulus on five scales representing putative dimensions of perceived surface texture were then fitted by regression analysis into the MDS space. Roughness-smoothness and hardness-softness were found to be robust and orthogonal dimensions; the third dimension did not correspond closely with any of the rating scales used, but post hoc inspection of the data suggested that it may reflect the compressional elasticity (“springiness”) of the surface.     

Caricature effects, distinctiveness, and identification: testing the face-space framework

According to the multidimensional space framework, faces are represented as locations in a psychological face-space. Our aim was to test whether the locations of veridical, caricatured, and anticaricatured face stimuli in face-space, derived from multidimensional scaling analyses, could account for identification accuracy and distinctiveness ratings for these stimuli. Caricatures were identified more accurately and rated as more distinctive than veridical images, whereas anticaricatures were identified less accurately but were not significantly less distinctive than veridical images. In the face-space derived from multidimensional scaling, caricatures were further from the origin and less densely clustered than veridical images, whereas anticaricatures were closer to the origin and located in denser regions of the space. A quantitative model successfully predicted identification performance from the spatial locations of the stimuli. In general, the physically transformed faces were systematically mapped in the psychological space.     

A New Heterogeneous Multidimensional Unfolding Procedure

A variety of joint space multidimensional scaling (MDS) methods have been utilized for the spatial analysis of two- or three-way dominance data involving subjects’ preferences, choices, considerations, intentions, etc. so as to provide a parsimonious spatial depiction of the underlying relevant dimensions, attributes, stimuli, and/or subjects’ utility structures in the same joint space representation. We demonstrate that care must be taken with respect to a key assumption in existent joint space MDS models such that all estimated dimensions are utilized by each and every subject in the sample, as this assumption can lead to serious distortions with respect to the derived joint spaces. We develop a new Bayesian dimension selection methodology for the multidimensional unfolding model which accommodates heterogeneity with respect to such dimensional utilization at the individual subject level for the analysis of two or three-way dominance data. A consumer psychology application regarding the preference for Over-the-Counter (OTC) analgesics is provided. We conclude by discussing the practical implications of the results, as well as directions for future research.     

Effects on indscal of non-orthogonal perceptions of object space dimensions

A general question is raised concerning the possible consequences of employing the very popular INDSCAL multidimensional scaling model in cases where the assumptions of that model may be violated. Simulated data are generated which violate the INDSCAL assumption that all individuals perceive the dimensions of the common object space to be orthogonal. INDSCAL solutions for these various sets of data are found to exhibit extremely high goodness of fit, but systematically distorted object spaces and negative subject weights. The author advises use of Tucker's three-mode model for multidimensional scaling, which can account for non-orthogonal perceptions of the object space dimensions. It is shown that the INDSCAL model is a special case of the three-mode model.     

Unsupervised category learning with integral-dimension stimuli

Despite the recent surge in research on unsupervised category learning, the majority of studies have focused on unconstrained tasks in which no instructions are provided about the underlying category structure. Relatively little research has focused on constrained tasks in which the goal is to learn predefined stimulus clusters in the absence of feedback. The few studies that have addressed this issue have focused almost exclusively on stimuli for which it is relatively easy to attend selectively to the component dimensions (i.e., separable dimensions). In the present study, we investigated the ability of participants to learn categories constructed from stimuli for which it is difficult, if not impossible, to attend selectively to the component dimensions (i.e., integral dimensions). The experiments demonstrate that individuals are capable of learning categories constructed from the integral dimensions of brightness and saturation, but this ability is generally limited to category structures requiring selective attention to brightness. As might be expected with integral dimensions, participants were often able to integrate brightness and saturation information in the absence of feedback—an ability not observed in previous studies with separable dimensions. Even so, there was a bias to weight brightness more heavily than saturation in the categorization process, suggesting a weak form of selective attention to brightness. These data present an important challenge for the development of models of unsupervised category learning.     

Unsupervised category learning with integral-dimension stimuli

Despite the recent surge in research on unsupervised category learning, the majority of studies have focused on unconstrained tasks in which no instructions are provided about the underlying category structure. Relatively little research has focused on constrained tasks in which the goal is to learn predefined stimulus clusters in the absence of feedback. The few studies that have addressed this issue have focused almost exclusively on stimuli for which it is relatively easy to attend selectively to the component dimensions (i.e., separable dimensions). In the present study, we investigated the ability of participants to learn categories constructed from stimuli for which it is difficult, if not impossible, to attend selectively to the component dimensions (i.e., integral dimensions). The experiments demonstrate that individuals are capable of learning categories constructed from the integral dimensions of brightness and saturation, but this ability is generally limited to category structures requiring selective attention to brightness. As might be expected with integral dimensions, participants were often able to integrate brightness and saturation information in the absence of feedback--an ability not observed in previous studies with separable dimensions. Even so, there was a bias to weight brightness more heavily than saturation in the categorization process, suggesting a weak form of selective attention to brightness. These data present an important challenge for the development of models of unsupervised category learning.     

不同情境转换对重复学习条件下类别-例词回忆的影响

为了考察重复学习条件下内部心境转换和外部情境转换对类别-例词回忆的影响,本研究参考提取练习范式,进行了两个实验。实验1选取96名被试,在初始学习与重复学习阶段之间通过指导语操纵被试维持初始学习时的心境,或转换为合作心境,或转换为竞争心境;实验2选取64名被试,被试在不同外部情境中进行初始学习和重复学习,测试时或处于初始学习的情境,或处于重复学习的情境。回忆测验的结果显示:与未经历重复学习的基线词相比,同类别重学的例词回忆率高于基线词,表现出促进现象;当发生内部心境转换,或发生外部情境转换且在重复学习的情境测试时,同类别中未重学例词的回忆率低于基线词,表现出削弱现象;当发生外部情境转换但在初始学习情境测试时,同类别未重学例词的回忆却高于基线词。可采用联结凸显-曝光-线索扩展性的三维度观点解释这一结果。