Optimism and Coping with Unemployment among Hong Kong Chinese Women

The effects of dispositional optimism and coping on the link between unemployment and psychological health were studied among 79 employed and 104 unemployed Hong Kong Chinese women. Results indicated that optimism, indexed by the Chinese version of the Revised Life Orientation Test (C-RLOT), moderated the effect of unemployment on psychological health. The less optimistic women were more psychologically impaired by losing their jobs. Among the unemployed women, the more optimistic ones and those who were more able to distance themselves from job loss fared better. Nevertheless, coping did not mediate the connection between optimism and psychological outcomes. These findings suggest that optimism is an important personal resource for coping with unemployment in Hong Kong Chinese, but whether coping mediates the effects of optimism on psychological health or not depends on other contextual factors. Ways to ensure more reliable prediction regarding the connections between optimism, coping and psychological health in future research were discussed.     

Social factors and mental health symptoms among women who have experienced involuntary job loss

The growing proportion of women in the labor force and the current economic crisis has made women a target population for job loss. In that situation, they are likely to experience recurrent layoffs, which force them to cope with multiple job loss and with unemployment. The present study aimed to examine sociodemographic factors that help women succeed in coping with single or multiple experiences of job loss, and that even enhance their self-efficacy in returning to work. The population of participants consisted of 134 Israeli women aged 30-45 who had been laid off. The findings indicate that the women who had experienced multiple job loss expressed a stronger desire to return to work than did those who had been laid off only once. Married women showed a greater tendency to become accustomed to stress after being laid off than did never-married women. However, even though multiple job loss might be a forced solution to home-work conflict, never-married women were found to be at risk for distress responses after being laid off. There is a need to develop responses for women who are at risk for multiple job loss, and to enhance employers' awareness of the situation faced by women who are laid off.     

Unemployment among women with multiple sclerosis: the role of coping and perceived stress and support in the workplace

Unemployment is high among individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS). Certain disease variables and demographics have been found to distinguish employed and unemployed individuals. However, these variables only account for 14–20% of the variance. Other factors, such as coping, perceived stress and social support, in the workforce have been proposed, but not yet fully examined. The purpose of the present investigation was to examine the role of known factors associated with unemployment in MS, as well as coping and perceived work stress and social support. Sixty-eight women with MS were asked about their employment status and reasons for leaving. They completed a comprehensive assessment including measures of cognition, disease symptoms, psychological functioning, coping and stress. Consistent with previous findings, certain disease and demographic variables were associated with being unemployed. In particular, women who left work due to their MS were found to be older, had a longer disease duration and progressive course, reported greater disability and fatigue, and performed worse on a cognitive measure. However, we also found that coping style distinguished those who were employed from those who left work due to their MS. In particular, those who left work reported utilizing maladaptive coping mechanisms such as behavioral disengagement and substance use. With regard to perceived work stress and support, individuals who were employed reported that job security and fellow co-workers were more of an uplift than a hassle in their lives, suggesting some benefit in employment. These findings suggest that further consideration be given to role of coping and perception of the benefit of employment among individuals with MS when making recommendations regarding work decisions.     

The psychological health of employed and unemployed recent graduates as a function cognitive appraisal and of coping

In the literature on the effects of unemployment on graduates two competing hypothesis have found support. On one hand graduates have higher expectations about status and occupational identity, hence being unemployed should be more distressing. On the other hand graduates have access to more personal and situational resources and should cope better with the stress of unemployment. In a study of 181 recent graduates it was found that those who were employed (n = 88) scored higher on both somatization and interpersonal sensitivity than those who were unemployed (n = 93). A large percentage also reported not being in the job to which they aspired and scored low on job commitment. The unemployed graduates had a more positive approach to problem-solving, higher achievement motivation, more perceived social support, were more assertive, and felt less hopeless than their employed peers. They also engaged in more constructive leisure activities than the employed group. The data provide tentative support for the hypothesis that graduates are better at coping with unemployment. However the indication is that any advantage to be gained is relative to the type of job occupied by the employed group to whom they are compared. The general conclusion is that opting for a job which does not meet expectations or aspirations may be more psychologically damaging in the short term than being unemployed and hopeful. This is a function of the individual's vulnerability or resistance to stress and highlights the need for graduates to be prepared more effectively for the path to a career.     

Effect of Age,Length of Unemployment,and Problem‐Focused Coping on Positive Reemployment Expectations

This study explored the interrelated job search, unemployment, and coping literature (e.g., Leana & Feldman, 1990 ; McKee‐Ryan, Song, Wanberg, & Kinicki, 2005 ), in which the effects of age, length of unemployment, and coping behaviors on reemployment expectations were investigated. The study included unique demographics in which 65% were long‐term unemployed. Length of unemployment, networking comfort, and job search confidence were significant in a regression, and age was not. Regardless of age, reemployment expectations can be higher if the job seeker has higher levels of networking comfort and/or job search confidence or lower if they have been unemployed for a longer duration.     

Normalizing Unemployment: A New Way to Cope with Unemployment?

Although the literature suggests that the massive unemployment statistics of the last decade have resulted in changes in the way people view unemployment, no study to date has precisely identified this phenomenon and its effects on individuals. This study brings to light the connection between these new perceptions of and experiences with unemployment and health. Using both qualitative and quantitative methods, we developed and validated the Unemployment Normalization Questionnaire and correlated it with health. Thus, 938 unemployed people from two economic contexts (France and Luxembourg) completed both the Unemployment Normalization Questionnaire and the General Health Questionnaire. This study confirmed the existence of the psychological concept of unemployment normalization among actual job seekers and its relation to perceived well-being.     

Mediated moderation or moderated mediation: relationship between length of unemployment, resilience, coping and health

The aim of the present research was to evaluate a model of mediated moderation vs. moderated mediation that could explain the relationship between length of unemployment, dispositional resilience, coping styles and depression and social functioning of Venezuelan unemployed individuals. Self-report measures were administered to a sample of 328 unemployed residents in Caracas, Venezuela. Results indicated that emotional coping acted as a mediator in the relationship between resilience and depression. Individuals with greater resilience used more detachment coping when unemployment was longer, while individuals with poorer resilience in the same situation used less avoidance coping. Resilience acted as a protective moderating factor between longer periods of unemployment and social functioning, a process mediated by detachment coping. Overall, results supported a mediated moderation model, with resilience as the moderating factor and coping as the mediator in the relation between stress due to the length of unemployment and well-being.     

Finding Work Following Job Loss: The Role of Coping Resources

The negative physical and psychological effects of job loss are well-documented. Much less research has explored factors that might help people cope with job loss and become reemployed quickly. Individuals who became reemployed within 3 months of job loss were more “internal” in locus of control, had greater self-efficacy, and possessed better problem-solving skills than did individuals who remained unemployed.     

Psychological and physical well-being during unemployment: a meta-analytic study

The authors used theoretical models to organize the diverse unemployment literature, and meta-analytic techniques were used to examine the impact of unemployment on worker well-being across 104 empirical studies with 437 effect sizes. Unemployed individuals had lower psychological and physical well-being than did their employed counterparts. Unemployment duration and sample type (school leaver vs. mature unemployed) moderated the relationship between mental health and unemployment, but the current unemployment rate and the amount of unemployment benefits did not. Within unemployed samples, work-role centrality, coping resources (personal, social, financial, and time structure), cognitive appraisals, and coping strategies displayed stronger relationships with mental health than did human capital or demographic variables. The authors identify gaps in the literature and propose directions for future unemployment research.     

A scale to measure attitudes toward working

The purpose of this study was to develop a scale that could measure attitude toward work and be used to determine the relation between length of unemployment time and work attitudes. Standardization of the Employment Readiness Scale was completed through its administration to three independent groups (N = 430): (1) employed workers: employees who worked in unskilled, semiskilled, and occasionally skilled job classifications; (2) unemployed individuals who were actively looking for regular employment at the Tennessee State Employment Service; and (3) the chronically unemployed: individuals, who, for the most part, were not looking for regular employment and who were seeking night lodging and meals at the Salvation Army or the Knoxville Union Rescue Mission. Through item analysis, it was determined that 43 of the 45-scale items were significant at or beyond the .01 level. It was further established that a relationship existed between work attitudes and length of unemployment. The longer an individual was unemployed, the less positive was his attitude toward work.     

Coping and emotional distress in a sample of Swedish unemployed.

The study investigated the associations between coping and symptoms of emotional distress within a sample of 166 unemployed men and women (mean age 40 +/- 10 years, range 22 to 63 years, 52% males). All variables were measured with a questionnaire comprising sociodemographic background, length of unemployment, financial strain, coping style ("Ways of Coping Checklist"), and emotional distress (Hopkins Symptom Check List-25). Emotional distress was positively related to financial strain and more common among younger subjects, divorced subjects and those with foreign background, but less frequent among subjects who had been unemployed for more than three years. After controlling for age, gender, education, foreign background, length of unemployment and financial strain, hierarchical regression analyses showed that emotion-focused coping, i.e. self-blame and wishful thinking, was positively related to emotional distress. Problem-focused coping and cognitive restructuring were negatively associated with emotional distress. Younger subjects and divorced subjects made frequent use of both emotion-focused and problem-focused coping. Female subject and subjects with mandatory school made frequent use of emotion focused coping, if exposed to high financial strain. Problem-focused coping was less frequent among subjects with a low education coupled with low financial strain. Cognitive restructuring was less common among subjects who had been unemployed for more than three years. Younger subjects who were also divorced made less use of both problem-focused coping and cognitive restructuring. The results confirm that coping style has importance for the mental health of the unemployed, and indicate a differential use of coping strategies among subjects with different sociodemographic backgrounds and different levels of financial strain.     

Unemployment impairs mental health: Meta-analyses

The effect of unemployment on mental health was examined with meta-analytic methods across 237 cross-sectional and 87 longitudinal studies. The average overall effect size was d = 0.51 with unemployed persons showing more distress than employed persons. A significant difference was found for several indicator variables of mental health (mixed symptoms of distress, depression, anxiety, psychosomatic symptoms, subjective well-being, and self esteem). The average number of persons with psychological problems among the unemployed was 34%, compared to 16% among employed individuals. Moderator analyses demonstrated that men and people with blue-collar-jobs were more distressed by unemployment than women and people with white-collar jobs. Linear and curvilinear moderating effects of the duration of unemployment were also identified. Furthermore, the negative effect of unemployment on mental health was stronger in countries with a weak level of economic development, unequal income distributions, or weak unemployment protection systems compared to other countries. Meta-analyses of longitudinal studies and natural experiments endorsed the assumption that unemployment is not only correlated to distress but also causes it. Seemingly inconsistent longitudinal results of older meta-analyses can be explained by retest artifacts. We also identified mental-health related selection effects during job loss and job search, but they are weak. With an effect size of d = −.35 intervention programs for unemployed people were found to be moderately effective in ameliorating unemployment-related distress among continuously unemployed persons.     

Job loss as a blessing in disguise: The role of career exploration and career planning in predicting reemployment quality

Job loss is one of the most difficult work related situations that an individual may encounter. Yet, sometimes job loss may also turn into a blessing in disguise. Combining the careers literature with the literature on unemployment, the current paper addresses potential positive outcomes of job loss by focusing on specific career adaptability activities that individuals can undertake to obtain these outcomes. Three hundred and four unemployed outplacement attendees reported their use of self and environmental career exploration and career planning, as well as of job search (general and networking) and the availability of two resources that may foster these activities, general self-efficacy and social support. Six months later, 215 individuals reported their current reemployment status and, when applicable, the quality of that reemployment. Results replicate the positive effects of job search on finding reemployment but moreover outline the relevance of career planning and exploration during unemployment on ensuring the quality of this reemployment. Theoretical implications and directions for practice and future research are discussed.     

Self-categorization,coping and psychological health among unemployed mid-career executives

The role of self-categorization as 'unemployed' in coping with unemployment was investigated in a sample of 148 males who had previously had a white collar career. Coping was considered in terms of psychological distress, locus of control, problem-solving style and perceived social support. Individuals who self-categorized as 'unemployed' exhibited greater psychological distress, as did those who had been previously unemployed, and those whose current unemployment extended more than one year. Self-categorization effects on social support, locus of control and problem-solving style were observed as a function of previous experience of unemployment.     

Life Satisfaction and Job‐Seeking Behavior of the Unemployed: The Effect of Individual Differences in Justice Sensitivity

This study examines the effect of justice sensitivity on the life satisfaction and job‐seeking behavior of unemployed individuals and considers the likelihood of experiencing long‐term unemployment. We focus on two facets of dispositional justice sensitivity that reflect individual differences in perception and reactions to perpetrating injustice against others (perpetrator sensitivity) or suffering from the injustice of others as an innocent victim (victim sensitivity). We hypothesised that the negative effect of unemployment on life satisfaction is stronger among individuals with higher levels of victim sensitivity and perpetrator sensitivity. The former are more likely to perceive themselves as victims of an unjust situation, such as fate or the employer's decisions, whereas the latter are more likely to perceive themselves as perpetrators against the rules of social justice. Using survey data from approximately 400 participants, we found that unemployed individuals were less satisfied with life than employed individuals and that this relationship was stronger for perpetrator‐sensitive individuals. Unemployed perpetrator‐sensitive individuals were more likely to engage in active job‐seeking behavior and faced a lower likelihood of long‐term unemployment. The results are discussed in terms of the importance of justice‐related personality aspects of unemployed individuals for their well‐being and labor market outcomes.     

中小学教师的工作倦怠与其相关因素的关系研究

本研究旨在探讨中小学教师的工作倦怠与其职业压力应对策略、教学效能感和社会支持的关系。用教师工作倦怠问卷、职业压力应对策略调查表、教学效能感量表和社会支持评定量表对766名中小学教师进行了问卷调查。结果发现：（1）中小学教师的工作倦怠与其职业压力应对策略、教学效能感和社会支持之间存在显著的相关关系;（2）教师的主动应对、被动应对、教学效能感和社会支持分别对教师的整体工作倦怠感及其情绪衰竭、非人性化和低成就感等维度具有显著的预测作用。     

Modulation de l’expression de l’identité professionnelle par l’utilisation d’appellations synonymes : « chômeur », « demandeur d’emploi » et « chercheur d’emploi »

The present research aimed to investigate whether and how terminology influences the expression of the self-concept, as well as that of the representation of others. More precisely, this paper explores, in the context of unemployment, how the words “unemployed person”, “job enquirer” and “jobseeker” can enhance the expression of the professional self concept and that of the representation of others. The Multistage Investigator of Social Identity method (IMIS; Zavalloni & Louis-Guérin, 1984) has been implemented to collect data from the French employment services. As expected, results provided evidence that the terminology used modulates professional identity expression; such that the words “unemployed person” and “job enquirer” lead individuals to unfavorably describe and perceive themselves. On the other hand, the designation “job seeker” helps them to put forward positive components of their professional self- concept and a less negative representation of others. These findings are discussed by stressing the relevance of using a terminology that does not stigmatize individuals and therefore avoids the disengagement from the job-seeking process.     

Neuropsychological and MMPI correlates of patients' future employment characteristics

Previous research has suggested that patients' neuropsychological test scores correlate not only with neurologic status but also with their success in coping with some of the demands of daily living. This study investigated the utility of such laboratory test scores in predicting several vocational variables. Patients who had recieved neuropsychological evaluations were recontacted and questioned about their employment over the previous 6 mo. Of the 78 individuals who participated, 25 had been chronically unemployed. The remaining 53 were asked about job stability, hours worked, and wages earned, and were administered the Minnsota Job Requirements Questionnaire. Patients' scores on the Halstead-Reitan Battery, the WAIS and the MMPI were highly correlated with employment status (employed or chronically unemployed), income, and skills required on the jobs held. The results suggest that these tests may have clinical utility in assessing patients' employability, as well as the types of jobs for which they are suited.     

Socioprofessional and psychological variables that predict job finding

The predictive power of socioprofessional and psychological variables on job finding was investigated with a cohort of 384 unemployed people in Luxembourg. The aim was to assess whether, in statistical profiling, some psychological variables have incremental validity over and above the more commonly used socioprofessional dimensions. For the period from 0 to 6 months and the period from 0 to 12 months, socioprofessional variables measured at the beginning of the unemployment period, allowed classification of three quarters of the subjects. Adding significant psychological dimensions did not improve the prediction in either case. Further analysis was done on persons still unemployed at 6 months (i.e. those who found it more difficult to find a job). For the period from 6 to 12 months, age and sex allowed correct classification of 62.6% of the subjects. Adding five psychological variables (openness, self-efficacy, social anxiety, symptom reduction coping, intelligence) significantly improves this percentage by 12.1 points. In the proposed model, psychological factors therefore only play a role in job finding for unemployed people who have more difficulty in finding a job. Results are discussed in terms of labour market mechanisms.     

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SUCCESSFUL JOB SEARCHES FOLLOWING LAY-OFF

A field study was conducted to examine attitudinal and behavioral variables associated with reemployment following job termination. Thirty-five employees were surveyed within two days following termination. Of those surveyed, 23 were contacted one month later regarding employment status. Analyses revealed that reemployed persons were significantly more confident of job search skills and had engaged in a greater number of search behaviors than had individuals who had remained unemployed. No significant differences between the reemployed and still unemployed groups were obtained in affective responses to termination or nonwork-related variables. The findings suggest that reemployment success is related to individual differences in expectations of successful job search. Implications for future research on job loss and reemployment are discussed.