Choices,Consequences and Desert

It is a commonly held position in the literature on distributive justice that choices individuals make from an equalized background may lead to inequalities of outcome. This raises the question of how to assign consequences to particular types of behaviour. Theories of justice based on the concept of moral responsibility offer considerable guidance as to how society should be structured, but they rarely address the question of what the consequences of making a particular choice should be. To fill this lacuna, these theories must rely on a theory of consequences. I argue that the most plausible theories of consequences are substantive rather than procedural in nature. Such theories of consequences are inherently based on the concept of desert. By evaluating individuals' choices society may determine the appropriate consequences of choices for which they are responsible.     

Stigma towards Mental Health Problems during Childhood and Adolescence: Theory,Research and Intervention Approaches

Many children and teenagers living with mental health problems experience stigma from within their peer group, yet this remains an under-researched topic in developmental science and the broader mental health literature. This paper highlights the limitations of adopting measures, concepts and theories that have exclusively emanated from the adult mental health literature. We argue that the social context of children and adolescents is critical in understanding the development and maintenance of stigma towards those with mental health problems, alongside the changing developmental needs and abilities of children and adolescents. In this article we argue that a theory proposed to explain the development of stereotypes and prejudice in childhood has potential as a framework for integrating existing research findings on mental health stigma in childhood and adolescence and providing direction for further research. The need for interventions that are grounded within the developmental science literature and that explicitly state their theory of change are identified as key research priorities for reducing stigma during childhood and adolescence.     

What do people think about changes in health behaviors? Differential perceptions of consequences of increases and decreases in health behaviors

Most health decision-making models posit that cost-benefit analyses underlie decisions to make changes in health-related behavioral practices. In a series of studies, participants imagined either increasing or decreasing the frequency of a variety of health behaviors and estimated the consequences of those changes. In Studies 1 and 2, individuals consistently estimated that increasing a health behavior produced greater consequences than did decreasing the behavior by an equivalent amount. The results of Study 3 demonstrated that this effect is due to differences in how individuals judge the impact of health behavior changes which involve not engaging in the behavior at all versus other types of changes. Taken together, these findings suggest that perceptions of the outcomes afforded by health behavior changes depend on both the behavioral frequency and direction of changes in behavior an individual is considering. This asymmetry has the potential to help explain patterns of behavior in a range of important health domains and may impact the effectiveness of behavior change interventions.     

Communicator Similarity,Fear Arousing Communications,and Compliance with Health Care Recommendations1

Using a pretest-treatment-multiple posttest design, two studies were conducted to investigate the effects of race of communicator and different levels of fear-arousing dental health appeals on reported anxiety, attitudes, information retention, and behavior change among 304 black, junior high school students. In addition to paper-and-pencil measures, a chemical dye (erythrosin), which stains red the bacteria concentrations on teeth, was used to measure changes of actual toothbrushing behavior. The results of the two studies for behavior change were reasonably consistent. Irrespective of the fear level of the message, the similar communicator produced more immediate behavior change than the dissimilar communicator, and correlations showed that anxiety reports were unrelated to behavior change. Overall, fear communications positively influenced anxiety and attitudes but did not affect behavior. The findings suggest that caution be exercised in using self reports as measures of effectiveness of persuasive communications and additional factors need to be incorporated into existing theories to account for differential reactions to threat appeals.     

Quasi-truth,paraconsistency, and the foundations of science

In order to develop an account of scientific rationality, two problems need to be addressed: (i) how to make sense of episodes of theory change in science where the lack of a cumulative development is found, and (ii) how to accommodate cases of scientific change where lack of consistency is involved. In this paper, we sketch a model of scientific rationality that accommodates both problems. We first provide a framework within which it is possible to make sense of scientific revolutions, but which still preserves some (partial) relations between old and new theories. The existence of these relations help to explain why the break between different theories is never too radical as to make it impossible for one to interpret the process in perfectly rational terms. We then defend the view that if scientific theories are taken to be quasi-true, and if the underlying logic is paraconsistent, it’s perfectly rational for scientists and mathematicians to entertain inconsistent theories without triviality. As a result, as opposed to what is demanded by traditional approaches to rationality, it’s not irrational to entertain inconsistent theories. Finally, we conclude the paper by arguing that the view advanced here provides a new way of thinking about the foundations of science. In particular, it extends in important respects both coherentist and foundationalist approaches to knowledge, without the troubles that plague traditional views of scientific rationality.     

Coercion and pragmatic presuppositions

In Category Mistakes, Magidor proposes that sortal restrictions should be viewed as pragmatic presuppositions. This contrasts with recent linguistic theories of successfully resolved category mistakes, e.g. coercions or copredication. It has been argued that for the proper treatment of such examples, sortal restrictions should be expressed by semantic presuppositions since they need to interact with compositional semantics. I explore possible ways in which Magidor’s theory could be extended to explain examples of coercion and copredication. The outcome of the discussion is that incorporation of these facts into Magidor’s pragmatic system might be possible, but ecessitates choices that are far from trivial.     

A contextual approach to research on AIDS prevention

The acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease that is transmitted almost entirely through behavioral factors. In the absence of a cure or vaccine, the modification of AIDS-risk behavior presents a unique challenge to behavioral scientists and should be taken as a clear imperative by behavior analysts. This paper discusses the currently dominant social-cognitive theories (the health belief model, the theory of reasoned action, and self-efficacy theory) that have been widely used to predict and understand AIDS-risk behavior. Although these theories have generated a voluminous literature on the cognitive, attitudinal, and demographic correlates of AIDS-risk behavior, they have not resulted in specific intervention strategies to influence risky behavior, most likely because they fail to specify manipulable variables. As an alternative to social-cognitive theories, this paper evaluates the usefulness of a behavior-analytic approach to stem the spread of HIV infection. It examines some of the philosophical differences underlying cognitive and behavioral approaches that are embedded in mechanistic versus functional contextualistic principles. It explores the theoretical and practical implications of adopting either predicting and explaining behavior or predicting and influencing behavior as the goals of science. To illustrate the value of adopting the goal of prediction and influence, behavior-analytic research on the social context of risky sexual behavior in adolescents is described. The paper argues that in order to alter the future course of the AIDS epidemic, the behavioral sciences must move beyond describing cognitive and attitudinal correlates of risky behavior and focus on the social context of the behavior of individuals. In addition, population-wide changes in AIDS-risk behavior can be accomplished only if research focuses on how to influence larger social systems, including the media, school systems, and community organizations.     

Theoretical underpinnings of a need-supportive intervention to address sustained healthy lifestyle changes in overweight and obese adolescents

ObjectivesRecent figures indicate that nearly a quarter of Australian adolescents are overweight or obese. Despite the well-established role of physical activity and healthy eating in reducing prevalence of obesity, there remains a lack of effective interventions that promote sustained behavior engagement. This paper aims to describe the theory-based integration and implementation of self-determination theory and goal setting theory in a family-based lifestyle intervention. Although these theories have been shown to independently predict motivation for behavior, a limited number of studies have described behavior-change techniques at a level to allow for effective evaluation and replication, and no studies have combined the theories in a healthy lifestyle behavior intervention.MethodsBehavior change techniques and the associated change mediators are described in relation to need-supportive environments provided by instructors and extended to parents in the home environment. Methods for motivating and promoting sustained engagement in adolescent physical activity and healthy eating and parent behaviors to support these lifestyle changes are discussed within the context of need-satisfaction and goal setting.ConclusionsThis study will contribute to understanding processes for developing and implementing behavior-change techniques based on the integration of two theories of motivation. Future interventions aimed at promoting maintenance of physical activity and healthy eating behaviors in overweight and obese adolescents will benefit by being informed of which techniques are effective at enhancing motivation within the intervention context and home environment.     

阴谋论的心理学探索

阴谋论最初非心理学术语,但自上世纪90年代以来渐渐进入心理学研究者的视野。在心理学的研究视角下,阴谋论被视为个体对将重大事件解释为有组织的密谋行动这类说法的接受与相信。研究者开发了阴谋论的测量工具,包括具体和一般层面的阴谋论问卷。对于阴谋论影响因素的探讨发现阴谋论与随和性、开放性、直觉思维、秩序需求等人格、认知、动机因素密切相关。且大量研究还探讨了阴谋论的影响后效,发现其会对个体在政治、健康、环保等层面的行为产生影响。未来研究者应加强对阴谋论的实验研究;且应逐步在国内开展研究,以探讨中国人阴谋论倾向的特殊成因;最后应积极探索阴谋论的干预策略,这将会给培养国民理性平和的社会心态带来启示。     

Team reasoning: Solving the puzzle of coordination

In many everyday activities, individuals have a common interest in coordinating their actions. Orthodox game theory cannot explain such intuitively obvious forms of coordination as the selection of an outcome that is best for all in a common-interest game. Theories of team reasoning provide a convincing solution by proposing that people are sometimes motivated to maximize the collective payoff of a group and that they adopt a distinctive mode of reasoning from preferences to decisions. This also offers a compelling explanation of cooperation in social dilemmas. A review of team reasoning and related theories suggests how team reasoning could be incorporated into psychological theories of group identification and social value orientation theory to provide a deeper understanding of these phenomena.     

心理资本与变革支持行为的关系—变革开放性和工作自主性作用研究

本研究在整合心理资本理论与相关理论的基础上,通过对302位华南地区企业员工两阶段的问卷调查,考察了变革开放性在心理资本与变革支持行为关系的中介作用以及工作自主性对该关系的调节作用。数据分析结果表明：（1）员工心理资本显著正向影响变革开放性和变革支持行为;（2）变革开放性在心理资本和变革支持行为的关系中起到部分中介作用;（3）工作自主性在变革开放性与变革支持行为的关系中起着正向调节作用。     

Today I'll use a condom, but who knows about tomorrow: a daily process study of variability in predictors of condom use

OBJECTIVE: Most models of health behavior change applied to condom use behavior have focused on individual differences in theoretical constructs to explain condom use or nonuse, while ignoring the possibility that day-to-day within-person changes in these constructs may contribute to understanding behavior. The goal of the present study was to investigate day-to-day variability in condom use attitudes, self-efficacy, and behavioral intentions and assess the utility of this variability in predicting the likelihood of condom use each day. DESIGN: A 30-day Web-based structured daily diary was used to collect daily reports of sexual behaviors and data on theoretical predictors of condom use behavior from sexually active college students (N = 116). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The authors investigated whether condom use attitudes, self-efficacy, and behavioral intentions vary day to day; whether this within-person variability predicts condom use behavior; and whether negative affective states explain this variability. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Within-person variability was found for each of the constructs. Within-person day-to-day changes in behavioral intentions and attitudes predicted the instances in which an individual used a condom and daily negative affect partially explained within-person day-to-day changes in behavioral intentions and self-efficacy. Implications for models of health behavior change and for behavior change interventions are discussed.     

从毕生发展的视角看健康的贫富差距

健康的贫富差距是所有个体从出生到死亡都需要面对的现实, 也是全球所有国家都存在的社会问题。目前已经有相当的理论和实证研究尝试从毕生发展的视角理解健康的贫富差距。在毕生发展研究中, 健康的贫富差距有其独特的概念和测量方式。该领域重要的理论包括累积优(劣)势假设、累积不公平模型和社会阶层文化周期模型。研究者就儿童期、青少年期、成年期和老年期的健康贫富差距开展了大量的实证研究。未来毕生发展研究和实践的可能方向包括早年和当前社会经济地位的交互作用、社会经济地位的稳定特征和情境效应、跨领域实践干预等。毕生发展视角的健康贫富差距研究有助于理解健康贫富差距的发展根源和形成过程, 是促进国民健康和开展健康公平实践工作的理论基础。     

How changes in subjective general health predict future time perspective,and development and generativity motives over the lifespan

In this study, we used the lifespan theories of selection optimization and compensation (SOC) and the socio‐emotional selectivity theory (SST) to integrate the disengagement and activity perspectives on aging and to explain intra‐individual changes in work motivation. A two‐wave longitudinal survey study was conducted among 600 Dutch university employees to test relations between intra‐individual changes in subjective general health, future time perspective (FTP), and generativity and development motives. In line with the two lifespan theories, two processes were found. First, consistent with the disengagement perspective on aging, losses in subjective general health negatively predicted open‐ended FTP, and open‐ended FTP was positively associated with an increase in growth motives. Secondly, consistent with the activity perspective on aging, losses in subjective general health positively predicted limited FTP, and limited FTP was positively associated with an increase in generativity motives. In addition, initial open‐ended FTP predicted future open‐ended FTP through a change in subjective general health. Finally, these relations were found to differ across age groups, and thus over the lifespan. More specifically, losses in subjective general health and increases in limited FTP particularly result in lower development motives and higher generativity motives among middle‐aged workers, indicating that interventions aimed at preventing losses in health are probably most effective for maintaining development motives in this group.     

Labeling,Social Learning,and Positive Deviance: A Look at High Achieving Students

High achievers are an intriguing case in that they are often stigmatized by peers as rate-busters and concurrently adulated as positive deviants by their parents and teachers. Theories developed to explain negative deviants have potential to also illuminate positive deviance. High achievers were interviewed and both labeling theory and social learning theory were applied to explain aspects of their experiences.     

Theories,structures and simulations in the research of early mentalizing

The objective of this paper is to propose some new approaches that could be used in the research of the development of mindreading in infancy. I argue that the mentalizing system should be approached as a developing hierarchical structure that acquires the ability to orient attention to the most significant features in the environment. The development of this system could be described by a series of implicit theories that share a common structure which provides continuity over theory change. According to this view, the early stages which have a fundamental role for the development of mindreading would be described by low-level theories, but as infants become increasingly efficient in predicting behavior of observed agents the higher-order entities become prioritized due to their relevance. Infants thus gradually develop the ability to predict the behavior of others in situations involving attribution of mental states. I propose a strategy based on the analysis of attention deployment that could help to decide which of the alternative theories provides the most adequate account of the mentalizing system at a certain developmental stage. I also suggest that computational modeling could contribute to the research in this area. Simulations of looking behavior based on different ontologies could prove to be useful for choosing the most adequate theory as well as for advancing the understanding of mechanisms involved in the development of theory of mind.     

What Front-Line CBO Staff Can Tell Us About Culturally Anchored Theories of Behavior Change in HIV Prevention for Asian/Pacific Islanders

Few rigorously tested primary prevention programs have been developed to prevent HIV infection among immigrant communities in the United States. This is in part because of the lack of culturally specific behavioral theories that can inform HIV prevention for immigrant communities in the United States. This article aims to develop such theories for a population—Asian/Pacific Islanders (A/PIs) immigrant communities—who have been overlooked in theory development and program evaluation. Frontline community-based organization (CBO) peer educators, an underutilized source of expertise regarding cultural factors specific to HIV infection among A/PI communities, are the sample of study Asian/Pacific Islander peer educators working at an urban AIDS service organization devoted to health promotion for this population; (N=35). They were interviewed to examine (1) detailed narratives describing instances of behavior change and (2) culturally anchored theories of behavior change which the narratives imply. Theories of the influence of positive cultural symbols on the taboo of HIV/AIDS, moderators of the effectiveness of social network influences on behavior change, and setting- and community-level processes predicting HIV risk behavior were implicit in the peer educators' narratives. Implications for future research, methodology and prevention practice are discussed.     

Psychological-state theories about significant others: implications for the content and structure of significant-other representations

Three studies tested a theory-based approach to significant-other representations. The central hypothesis was that perceivers are especially likely to possess lay theories to explain the responses of their significant others, and this is reflected in the content and structure of significant-other representations. Theories were defined in IF-THEN terms as beliefs about the psychological states (e.g., "IF Bill wants to make a good impression.") that explain others' responses (e.g., ". THEN he acts friendly"). All three studies yielded evidence indicating that the content of significant-other representations is especially likely to include such psychological-state theories (PSTs). Study 3 assessed the internal structure of PSTs-specifically, the strength of the linkages between psychological-state IFs and the THENs they are believed to elicit-and showed that such linkages are particularly strong for PSTs about significant others. Overall, the findings add to the growing literature on the role of explanatory or lay-theoretical forms of knowledge in how perceivers make sense of the social world.     

Autism, hypersystemizing, and truth

Evidence is reviewed suggesting that, in the general population, empathizing and systemizing show strong sex differences. The function of systemizing is to predict lawful events, including lawful change, or patterns in data. Also reviewed is the evidence that individuals on the autistic spectrum have degrees of empathizing difficulties alongside hypersystemizing. The hypersystemizing theory of autism spectrum conditions (ASC) proposes that people with ASC have an unusually strong drive to systemize. This can explain their preference for systems that change in highly lawful or predictable ways; why they become disabled when faced with systems characterized by less lawful change; and their "need for sameness" or "resistance to change". If "truth" is defined as lawful patterns in data then, according to the hypersystemizing theory, people with ASC are strongly driven to discover the "truth".