呼吸道传染病疫情背景下的民众社交距离保持行为

自COVID-19疫情爆发以来,疫情背景下的社交距离保持行为成为了一个受到关注的新兴问题。民众遵守社交限制措施和主动扩大社交距离对遏制呼吸道传染病疫情非常重要,而这些社交距离保持行为受到疫情情境、疫情相关认知和情绪、社会文化背景以及个体心理特质影响。疫情情境方面,疫情严重性与民众报告的社交距离保持行为并非简单的线性相关,可能受到时间进程的调节;社交距离保持行为还存在地区特异性,疫情首发地民众遵守社交距离保持意愿和行为更主动、更持久。其次,疫情相关认知和情绪方面,疫情知识,感知到的疫情风险性、严重性、可控性和主观规范,以及恐惧、担忧等负面情绪均可预测社交距离保持行为。第三,作为社会文化背景的不确定性回避程度、个人主义-集体主义价值观等因素,可能对民众在疫情背景下社交距离保持行为及心理产生直接或间接的影响。最后,个体认知特征中的自我控制、认知需求水平与自我效能感可正向预测社交距离保持行为,显示出社交距离保持行为中需要个体主动努力做出决策的部分;情绪动机特质中的健康风险回避倾向、厌恶敏感性、亲社会动机,社会认知视角下对科学和政府机构的信任,均可影响社交距离保持行为,并且人际信任水平对社交距离保持行为模式时间进程具有调节作用。 上述社交距离保持行为影响因素的研究发现,可基于计划行为理论、保护动机理论和行为免疫系统理论进行解释。其中,计划行为理论和保护动机理论强调个体对行为情境、成本、结果、他人反应的有意识感知、计算等高认知资源需求的活动。而行为免疫系统理论主要强调在传染病威胁下自动化水平的感知和行为改变。三个理论从有意识加工和自动化加工两个层面共同支持疫情背景下社交距离保持行为存在威胁管理机制,是目前社交距离保持行为领域最受关注的研究方向。其次,保护动机理论所强调的应对评估、计划行为理论中的知觉行为控制要素,以及近期研究所发现的自我效能感、自我控制、认知需求水平对社交距离保持行为的预测,均提示可能还存在独立于威胁管理机制之外的自我效能感机制影响社交距离保持行为。最后,计划行为理论所强调的主观规范要素有利于解释社会文化背景及亲社会动机、社会信任等因素的影响,结合近期有关疫情污名化和社会分类相关研究进展,我们提出,疫情背景下的社交距离保持行为可能还受到社会认同机制的影响,整合社会认同理论和计划行为理论,有助于更综合地体现个体与群体、理性和非理性因素的作用。未来研究应进一步考察情绪认知过程及其与社会文化背景和个体心理特质的交互作用,构建双系统模型,例如基于熟虑-冲动双系统模型,整合社会认同理论和计划行为理论,结合追踪及实验研究,明确各影响因素之间的因果关系,检验疫情背景下社交距离保持行为的内在机制。     

Socialization Communication,Organizational Citizenship Behaviors,and Sales in a Multilevel Marketing Organization

Multilevel marketing organizations (MLMs) are a rapidly growing but often controversial marketing organizational type boasting nearly 10 million members and over $20 billion in annual sales. The success of the MLM business model rests largely on forming cooperative social networks of member distributors. Socialization of new members to the norms and values of the MLM plays a key role in eliciting that cooperative behavior. However, the member cooperation that produces successful networks may inhibit the financial performance of individual distributors. Drawing upon social identity theory, this study investigates whether communication of the MLM’s behavioral norms during the socialization of members affects the degree to which members cooperate with each other and how that cooperation affects the sales performance of individual distributorships. The results of a survey of MLM members suggest that both effects occur. Socialization communication positively affects member cooperation, which produces direct and indirect effects on sales. Cooperation, measured by several organizational citizenship behaviors, exerts a positive direct effect on sales, but a negative indirect effect when the relationship is mediated by group cohesion.     

On being both with us and against us: a normative conflict model of dissent in social groups.

Although past research has demonstrated a positive relationship between collective identification and normative conformity, there may be circumstances in which strongly identified members do not conform but instead choose to challenge group norms. This article proposes a normative conflict model, which distinguishes between nonconformity due to dissent (challenging norms to change them) and nonconformity due to disengagement (distancing oneself from the group). The normative conflict model predicts that strongly identified members are likely to challenge group norms when they experience conflict between norms and important alternate standards for behavior, in particular when they perceive norms as being harmful to the group. Data in support of the model are reviewed, mechanisms by which external variables may influence dissent in social groups are elaborated, and the model is linked to contemporary perspectives on collective identity.     

What children remember about ingroup and outgroup peers: effects of stereotypes on children's processing of information about group members

Three studies are reported about children's memory for stereotypic behaviors attributed to ingroup and outgroup members. According to research and theory in social cognition, cues present in the situation make cultural representations about group members accessible, and once primed, influence all phases of the information processing sequence. In Study 1, Euro Canadian and Native Canadian children (N=98) recalled stereotypic behaviors attributed to ingroup and outgroup members. In Study 2 (N=87), the influence of individual difference variables was explored. In Study 3 (N=32), the memory of Native Canadian children living on a First Nation reserve for behaviors attributed to ingroup and outgroup members was studied. Biases in recall were found in Studies 1 and 2, but in Study 3, outgroup favoritism, typically found among low status group members, was reversed among children attending a heritage school. Among the individual difference measures examined, age and level of cognitive development predicted what was remembered about group members. Older Euro Canadian children recalled more negative behaviors about outgroup members than did younger children, and more cognitively mature children recognized more information about ingroup than outgroup members. Results were discussed in terms of cognitive and situational factors influencing children's processing of group-relevant information and the challenges children in low status groups face in maintaining a sense of cultural identity.     

Individuality and social influence in groups: inductive and deductive routes to group identity

A distinction between forms of social identity formation in small interactive groups is investigated. In groups in which a common identity is available or given, norms for individual behavior may be deduced from group properties (deductive identity). In groups in which interpersonal relations are central, a group identity may also be induced from individual group members' contributions, making individuality and individual distinctiveness a defining feature of the group (inductive identity). Two studies examined the prediction that depersonalization produced by anonymity has opposite effects for groups in which social identity has been induced or deduced. Results confirmed the prediction that depersonalization increases social influence in groups whose identity was more deductive. In contrast, depersonalization decreases social influence in inductive identity groups. Implications for the role of social identity in small groups are discussed. ((c) 2005 APA, all rights reserved).     

Sharing moral values: anticipated ingroup respect as a determinant of adherence to morality-based (but not competence-based) group norms

This research examines how moral values regulate the behavior of individual group members. It argues that group members behave in line with moral group norms because they anticipate receiving ingroup respect when enacting moral values that are shared by ingroup members. Data from two experimental studies offer evidence in support. In Study 1 (N = 82), morality-based (but not competence-based) ingroup norms determined whether members of a low-status group opted for individual versus collective strategies for status improvement. This effect was mediated by anticipated ingroup respect and emerged regardless of whether group norms prescribed collectivistic or individualistic behavior. These effects were replicated in Study 2 (N = 69), where no comparable effect was found as a result of moral norms communicated by a higher status outgroup. This indicates that social identity implications rather than interdependence or more generic concerns about social approval or importance of cooperation drive these effects.     

The impact of discrepancies from ingroup norms on group members' well‐being and motivation

The social identity approach assumes that group members are internally motivated to adhere to group norms. Even though there is plenty of evidence for this assumption, research on how group norms translate into behavior is scarce. If ingroup norms are internalized, they should elicit the same effect as individual standards. Derived from research on internally motivated individual standards, it was predicted that discrepancies from group norms result in more negative affect, lower levels of well‐being, and—based on self‐completion theory—in compensatory effort in case of an opportunity to reduce the discrepancy. One correlational study and four experiments support these predictions. The results are discussed in relation to self‐regulation approaches and the social identity approach. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Creative innovation or crazy irrelevance? The contribution of group norms and social identity to creative behavior

This paper develops an analysis of innovative behavior and creativity that is informed by the social identity perspective. Two studies manipulated group norms and analyzed their impact on creative behavior. The results of Study 1 show that when people are asked to make a creative product collectively they display conformity to ingroup norms, but that they deviate from ingroup norms when group members make the same products on their own. A parallel result was found in group members’ private perceptions of what they consider creative. In Study 2, the social identity of participants was made salient. Results showed conformity to group norms even when group members worked on their own creations. Findings suggest that innovative behavior is informed by normative context, and that in contexts in which people operate as members of a group (either physically through collective action, or psychologically through social identity salience) innovation will respect normative boundaries.     

Development and Psychometric Evaluation of the Social Justice Scale (SJS)

The study describes the development of the Social Justice Scale (SJS). Practitioners, educators, students, and other members of the community differ on their attitudes and values regarding social justice. It is important to assess, not only individuals' attitudes and values around social values, but also other constructs that might be related to social justice behaviors. The implication of Ajzen in Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 50:179-211, (1991) theory of planned behavior suggests that attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and social norms predict intentions, which then lead to behaviors. A scale was designed to measure social justice-related values, attitudes, perceived behavioral control, subjective norms, and intentions based on a four-factor conception of Ajzen's theory. Confirmatory factor analysis and analyses for reliability and validity were used to test the properties of the scale.     

Social identity performance: extending the strategic side of SIDE.

This article extends the social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE) by considering the various ways in which relations of visibility to an audience can affect the public expression of identity-relevant norms (identity performance). It is suggested that social identity performance can fulfill two general functions: Affirming, conforming, or strengthening individual or group identities (the identity consolidation function) and persuading audiences into adopting specific behaviors (the mobilization function). The authors report evidence supporting these two functions of identity performance both in intragroup and intergroup contexts. They argue that through these functions, social identity performance plays a major role in the elaboration and coordination of social action. Finally, and building on this framework, the authors consider the ways through which social identity performance can be used in the very construction of social identity.     

Young adults' contraceptive practices: an investigation of influences

This study investigated young adults' contraceptive behaviors and attitudes through application of a comprehensive, theoretical framework. Specifically, a social-psychological approach to understanding preventive behaviors (e.g., contraceptive practices), was developed, incorporating the Health Belief Model and other factors, which offered a means for evaluating the extent to which contraceptive behaviors were influenced by individual and group characteristics. The study group consisted of 283 unmarried students at several schools who were, on average, 19 years of age. Results suggested that effective contraceptive behavior associated most strongly with respondents' perceiving relatively few barriers to their use of contraception, their maintenance of extensive interpersonal skills, and their regarding peer norms as consistent with effective contraceptive behavior. Findings also underlined a need for continuing education about sexuality and contraception. Dangerous misinformation prevailed regarding respondents' knowledge of areas that include anatomy, physiology, and appropriate use of effective contraceptive methods. Finally, results implied a need to consider broad behavioral, social, and interpersonal issues as they relate to young adults' effective contraceptive behavior. Future studies of contraceptive risk taking are encouraged to examine both individual and social factors affecting sexual and contraceptive practices if unplanned pregnancy is to be minimized, if not eliminated.     

Agreement in personality judgments within and between nonoverlapping social groups in collectivist cultures

The social context hypothesis states that people behave differently in different social groups because group norms and context-specific interpersonal relationships uniquely affect behavior. Consequently, a person who is a member of different, nonoverlapping social groups (i. e., the members of different groups are unacquainted) should be judged consensually on personality traits within each group; however, between groups there should be less agreement in judgments. This research focused on cultural moderation of the social context effect in two collective cultures (China and Mexico) with different norms for interpersonal relationships. Among Chinese, there was greater consensus in trait judgments within groups than between groups, whereas in Mexico, agreement within and between groups was equivalent. Culturally based relationship norms that affect cross-context consistency of behavior and, in turn, the consistency of trait judgments across groups were described.     

The Social and Personal Identities Scale: A Measure of the Differential Importance Ascribed to Social and Personal Self-Categorizations

A new measure sensitive to differences in the importance that people ascribe to their social (group) and personal identities is described. The Social and Personal Identities (SIPI) scale distinguishes between the interpersonal level of self which differentiates the individual as unique from others, and the social identity level of self whereby the individual is identified by his or her group memberships. In contrast to perspectives that emphasize the context-dependence of self-conception, our measure was designed to capture individual differences in participants' readiness to categorize themselves using group and personal self-categories as measured by the degree of importance or centrality assigned to each. Factor and reliability analyses support the scale's stability as a two-factor structure with high internal consistency, and these factors are modestly correlated. Results from six studies substantiate the scale's criterion and construct validity.     

Bringing together humanistic and intergroup perspectives to build a model of internalisation of normative social harmdoing

This article introduces a model of the internalisation of normative social harmdoing: the MINSOH. This model seeks to explain how group members internalise harmful social norms such that they personally endorse their groups' normative actions. To this aim, the MINSOH integrates two divergent yet complementary theoretical perspectives: self-determination theory and the social identity approach. These perspectives differ in their basic assumptions about the possibility for harm to become internalised, yet when integrated, they provide a powerful account of how harmdoing can become internalised. The MINSOH proposes specific conditions under which harmful normative actions become accepted by group members. This article outlines multiple self-determined motivations for harmdoing and discrete group processes that enable harmdoing to be internalised and autonomously enacted, and reviews factors that facilitate (i.e., strong/unique/comparative social identification; endorsement of ideological justifications) and block the internalisation process (presence of multiple identities/diverging norms; inclusive superordinate identity). Directions for future research are then discussed.     

Individual,social group and intergroup behaviour. Some conceptual remarks on the social identity theory

An investigation of the group concept proposed by Tqjfel and Turner shows that group formation and intergroup behaviour cannot be explained by the similarity of group members. Taking into account only similarity of elements leads to conceptual contaminations concerning group and class, group and collective, personal and social identity, and finally interpersonal and intergroup behaviour. It is claimed that only the consideration of group structure and the differentiation of partially individual and partially structural attributes of the group members results in a conceptually adequate theory of group formation and intergroup behaviour of its members.     

Distancing from a stigmatized social identity: State of the art and future research agenda on self-group distancing

Despite equal rights, minority groups such as ethnic minorities, LGBTQ + people, and people with mental or physical disabilities face discrimination on a day-to-day basis in subtle and hard-to-recognize forms. As discrimination slips beneath the surface, it becomes difficult to fight the stigma using collective social identity coping mechanisms. Instead, individual mobility responses such as distancing the self from the stigmatized identity (“self-group distancing”) become more viable as a way to improve one's individual standing. In this overview of the state of the art, we take a social identity lens to reflect on the current empirical knowledge base on self-group distancing as a coping mechanism and provide a framework on what self-group distancing is; when, where and why self-group distancing likely occurs; and what its consequences are at the individual and the collective level. The contributions in this special issue provide novel insights into how these processes unfold, and serve as a basis to set a future research agenda, for example on what can be done to prevent self-group distancing (i.e., interventions). Together, the insights highlight that while self-group distancing may seem effective to (strategically and temporarily) alleviate discomfort or to improve one's own position, on a broader collective level and over time self-group distancing tends to keep the current unequal social hierarchy in place.     

Effects of achievement motivation, social identity, and peer group norms on academic conformity

This study investigated whether academic achievement motivation and social identity explain variation in children’s conformity to positive academic behaviors (n = 455 children in grades three through five). Structural equation modeling suggested that academic value and peer group academic norms were positively related to academic conformity. Specifically, children who enjoyed academic pursuits and who belonged to academically-inclined peer groups were more likely to conform to novel academic behaviors than children who did not. Additionally, academic value moderated the relationship between peer group norms and conformity, implying that, for students who do not value academics, belonging to a peer group with high academic norms will lead to more conformity to academic behaviors than belonging to a peer group with low academic norms. In contrast, analyses suggested that some aspects of achievement motivation and social identity are unrelated to academic conformity. Implications for encouraging positive academic behaviors in middle childhood are discussed.     

Dysfunctional isolation in the elderly: Increasing marital and family closeness through improved communication

Unique developmental crises in old age may lead to social withdrawal that negatively affects the individual and his/her marital and family relationships. Without an awareness of these aging dynamics, the therapist can inadvertently perpetuate these distancing behaviors which can exacerbate marital and family conflict. This paper discusses certain developmental crises which can result in increased isolation for the older adult, and suggests therapeutic interventions to facilitate increased closeness among family members.     

社会认同对抑郁的影响及其理论解释

社会认同作为个体在群际和内群体层面的社会联结,总体上对抑郁产生了积极影响,表现为认同程度、认同重要性、认同群体数量以及认同变化的影响等4个方面。现有研究从需求、认知和行为层面探讨了社会认同影响抑郁的中介因素,并检验了身份认同动机和消极群体评价两个调节因素。社会认同视角下的4种理论分别从社会医治、心理资源、认同变化以及认同层次等不同角度解释了社会认同影响抑郁的心理机制。未来应厘清社会认同对抑郁的深层影响机制,重视社会认同影响抑郁的调节因素,及建构社会认同影响抑郁的能动-共生模型。