对运动成就目标三维模型的检验 ──一项对高水平乒乓球运动员的实证研究

Harwood等人（2000）对已应用于体育运动领域的任务-自我目标定向理论及其相关的测量工具提出了批判与质疑,并在此基础之上提出了运动成就目标三维模型,该模型将体育运动领域的成就目标分为三种,分别是纯任务目标;自我关联的自我目标;以及他人关联的自我目标。本研究的目的是对Harwood等人提出的运动成就目标三维模型进行检验。全文由两个子研究组成。研究一是成就目标问卷的发展与检验,对问卷的发展与信度、效度的检验进行了详细的介绍。研究二中,研究者采用所发展的成就目标问卷与录像访谈相结合的方法对4位（2男,2女）高水平乒乓球运动员的特质性目标以及赛前,赛中,赛后的状态性目标进行测评与检验。验证性因素分析的结果表明该运动成就目标问卷的三维模型拟合较好,三因素结构较为清晰。重测信度检验结果表明该问卷的三个维度均具有较高的重测信度。教练员对4名运动员成就目标的评估结果与运动员的问卷所得结果的一致性进一步支持了运动成就目标问卷的内部效度。对4名运动员的研究结果表明：（1）特质性目标对赛前状态性目标的预测主要与个人特点有关;（2）运动员在赛前与赛中状态性目标呈多元化趋势,既有只突出某一目标的单维现象,又有两种或三种目标同时占主导的多维现象;（3）运动员赛后状态性目标的变化倾向于受到比赛过程与结果的影响;（4）当运动员在比赛中经历重大挫折的时候,会有“亚目标”状态出现。本研究结果对Harwood等人的运动成就目标三维模型提供了支持。通过本研究,人们对高水平运动员的特质性目标及赛前、赛中、赛后状态性目标的性质及其变化有了更加深入的了解     

Examining the relationship between athletes' achievement goal orientation and ability to employ imagery

ObjectiveImagery ability may be cognitively regulated by motivational states, thus it is important to determine the relationship between goal orientations and imagery ability. Design/Method: Participants were 272 male and female athletes, representing nine sports. Goal orientations and cognitive and motivational imagery abilities were assessed via questionnaires. Task and ego goal orientations were examined via a two-step cluster analysis procedure, resulting in the identification of four goal orientation clusters. Separate multivariate analyses were conducted to assess differences in cognitive imagery ability and motivational imagery ability for the clusters, with gender and sport type entered as covariates. Results: For cognitive imagery ability, gender had a significant effect for athletes with low task/low ego orientation; female athletes rated their internal imagery perspective as clearer and more vivid. Regarding motivational imagery ability, when sport type was controlled for, cluster membership demonstrated a significant multivariate effect. Goal orientations have a relationship with motivational imagery ability but this same relationship was not evident with cognitive imagery ability. Athletes with high task/high ego or high task/low ego goal orientations scored significantly higher on their ability to feel emotions and their ease of generating motivational general-mastery images compared to athletes with low task/high ego or low task/low ego orientations. No differences between goal orientation clusters were found for motivational general-arousal imagery ability. Conclusion: Athletes who have a high task orientation are very motivated and have an easy time forming mastery images and a high ability to experience the emotion of these images.     

Achievement goal orientations and the use of coping strategies among Winter Olympians

Objectives: To examine the relationship between task and ego orientations and the use of stress-coping strategies among athletes participating in the 1994 Winter Olympic Games. We expected that athletes who were high on task and low on ego orientation would employ more problem-solving strategies than athletes with other ego and task profiles. We also expected that athletes high in ego and low in task orientation would employ more emotion-focused strategies than other athletes with other ego and task profiles. Gender differences were also investigated.Design: Cross-sectional, retrospective. Data were collected immediately after the closing of the Olympic Games.Methods: Norwegian athletes (N=69, 50 males and 20 females, mean age=25.2 years) participated in the study. Goal orientations and coping strategies were assessed using questionnaires.Results: After a median split on the task and the ego orientation scales to determine the athletes who were high/low, high/high, low/high or low/low in task and ego orientation respectively, 54 athletes remained in the final analysis. Several separate univariate 2×2 analyses of variance were conducted. High task/low ego orientation was related to the use of active coping and social emotional support, while low task/high ego orientation was related to the use of positive redefinition and growth strategies. High ego orientation was associated with less use of active coping and planning strategies among female athletes, but not among male athletes. Furthermore, high ego orientation in female athletes was related to the use of denial as a coping strategy.Conclusions: The relative strength of high and/or low task and ego orientation has an impact on elite athletes' use of coping strategies in competition. Being high in ego orientation seems to be more influential among female than male elite athletes in their use of coping strategies.     

Achievement Goal Orientations,Perceived Ability,and Sportspersonship in Youth Soccer

The present study was designed to examine the contribution of goal orientations and the influence of perceived ability as a moderating factor in predicting sportspersonship in competitive youth soccer. Participants were 511 Norwegian male youth soccer players, from ages 13 to 16, participating in the Norway Cup International Football Tournament. Findings revealed that high task-oriented participants consistently endorsed sportspersonship. However, participants who were high in ego orientation and high in task orientation only partially endorsed low sportspersonship. Perceived ability was a significant factor in that players high in ego orientation and low in perceived ability expressed the lowest respect for rules and officials and endorsed cheating behavior to reach their goals. In contrast, participants high in perceived ability and low in ego orientation expressed the highest level of respect for rules and officials. In this study, being high or low in ego orientation had a significant effect on sportspersonship.     

Goal Orientations of Young Male Ice Hockey Players and Their Parents

In this study, the researchers investigated the relationship between parent and player dispositional goal orientations associated with playing youth hockey. The authors used the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (J. L. Duda ? J. Whitehead, 1998) to measure task and ego orientation in 123 boys (10-13 years old) and 1 of their parents. Sons rated their own goal orientations for hockey and their perceptions of their parent's goal orientations. Parents rated their goal orientations for their son and their perceptions of their son's goal orientations. Mothers and fathers did not differ in their goal orientations for their son. Travel-team and nontravel-team players did not differ. For ego orientation, the son's self-ratings correlated significantly with the parent's goals for the son, but not for task orientation. Sons reported being significantly more ego-oriented than their parents desired. Sons perceived that their parents had goal orientations similar to their own. The data from this study are congruent with the assertion that parents socialize their children's goal orientations and that ego orientation may be more salient and easily communicated than task orientation.     

Goal orientations of young male ice hockey players and their parents

In this study, the researchers investigated the relationship between parent and player dispositional goal orientations associated with playing youth hockey. The authors used the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (J. L. Duda & J. Whitehead, 1998) to measure task and ego orientation in 123 boys (10-13 years old) and 1 of their parents. Sons rated their own goal orientations for hockey and their perceptions of their parent's goal orientations. Parents rated their goal orientations for their son and their perceptions of their son's goal orientations. Mothers and fathers did not differ in their goal orientations for their son. Travel-team and nontravel-team players did not differ. For ego orientation, the son's self-ratings correlated significantly with the parent's goals for the son, but not for task orientation. Sons reported being significantly more ego-oriented than their parents desired. Sons perceived that their parents had goal orientations similar to their own. The data from this study are congruent with the assertion that parents socialize their children's goal orientations and that ego orientation may be more salient and easily communicated than task orientation.     

The Relationship Between Goal Orientation and Self-Efficacy for Exercise

This study examined exercisers' motivational profiles and investigated whether different combinations of task and ego orientation would reflect different levels of coping and task self-efficacy. Male ( n = 106) and female ( n = 174) exercisers were administered an exercise version of the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (Duda & Nicholls, 1992) and an instrument measuring coping and task self-efficacy. The results of a K-means cluster analysis on the questionnaire scores resulted in a 5-cluster solution that maximized between-group differences and minimized within-group differences. A MANOVA indicated that the different cluster groups could be distinguished by their coping and task self-efficacy. More specifically, exercisers with high levels of task orientation, regardless of their corresponding levels of ego orientation, were characterized by having higher levels of self-efficacy than exercisers with low levels of task orientation combined with low to high levels of ego orientation.     

Motivation in Masters sport: Achievement and social goals

ObjectiveThis study examined the collective relationships amongst achievement goals, social goals and motivational correlates in Masters sport.MethodThe participants were 373 (184 females; 189 males) Masters athletes from six sports. Ages ranged from 29 years to 77 years (mean=48 years). Cluster analysis was employed to identify ‘goal profiles’ of two achievement goals (task and ego) and three social goals (affiliation, recognition, status). MANOVA was employed to examine the goal profiles for differences on self-perceptions, affect, and motivation.ResultsFive goal profiles were identified and labeled as follows: Cluster 1 (Lo-Aff) low affiliation, moderate task, ego, status, and recognition; Cluster 2 (Lo-Val) low ego, status, and recognition, moderate task and affiliation; Cluster 3 (Hi-Social) high affiliation and status, moderate recognition and task, and low ego; Cluster 4 (Lo-Ach) low task and ego, moderate affiliation, status, and recognition; and Cluster 5 (Hi-Ach) high task, ego, and recognition, moderate affiliation and status. MANOVA revealed that Cluster 3 (Hi-Social) was highest on enjoyment and perceived belonging, while Clusters 3 and 5 (Hi-Ach) were highest on intrinsic motivation, commitment, and perceived ability. Clusters 1 (Lo-Aff) and 4 (Lo-Ach) had lower levels of enjoyment and commitment.ConclusionIn general, these Masters athletes enjoyed their participation, they were committed, they had high perceptions of ability and belonging, and they were predominantly intrinsically motivated. The implications of these motivational profiles for Masters athletes are discussed from both theoretical and applied perspectives.     

Prediction of goal orientation and perceived competence on intensity and direction of precompetitive anxiety among adolescent handball players

This study explored the main and interactive effects of goal orientations and perceived competence on intensity and direction of the symptoms of precompetitive cognitive and somatic anxiety. 109 handball players from 16 high school teams (M = 16.2 yr., SD = 1.5) participated. All were asked to complete the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire, Perceived Competence Questionnaire, and a modified version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2. Using separated multiple hierarchical regression analyses, direction of the symptoms of precompetitive somatic anxiety was predicted by perceived competence and interaction of ego orientation x perceived competence. Perceived competence and the interaction of ego orientation x task orientation x perceived competence were significant predictors of direction of the symptoms of precompetitive cognitive anxiety. The results suggest that perceptions of competence and task orientation moderate the relationship between ego orientation and direction of the symptoms of precompetitive anxiety.     

Beyond positive and negative affect: Achievement goals and discrete emotions in the elementary physical education classroom

ObjectivesBased on the Achievement Goal perspective [Dweck, C. S., Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256–273; Nicholls, J. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91, 328–346] and on Pekrun et al.'s [(2004). Beyond test anxiety: development and validation of the test emotions questionnaire (TEQ). Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 17, 287–316] model of discrete class-related emotions, this study investigated the relation of achievement goals to discrete emotions in the Physical Education (PE) class.DesignCross-sectional.MethodParticipants were 319 Greek upper elementary school students who responded to a set of questionnaires assessing their achievement goal orientation, perceived competence, and the class-related emotions they experienced in the PE classes.ResultsHierarchical regression analyses showed that, after controlling for perceived competence and gender differences, task goals were positively related to positive activating emotions and negatively related to negative emotions. Ego goals exhibited a mixed picture as they were positively associated with pride and all the negative emotions. Furthermore, the relations between ego goals and emotions were qualified by an ego by task goal and by an ego by perceived competence interaction suggesting that ego goals were especially linked to emotional maladjustment when task goals were low and when competence perceptions were high rather than low.ConclusionUnique associations between task and ego goals and specific emotions were found, rendering insightful the disentanglement of positive and negative emotions into its components. The pursuit of task goals might help to counteract the emotional burden associated with ego goal pursuit whereas feeling competent to outperform when one endorses ego goals might perhaps put extra pressure on the pupils and, hence, have negative implications for their emotional adjustment.     

Achievement goals and emotions in athletes: The mediating role of challenge and threat appraisals

Although the relationships between achievement goals and discrete emotions have been examined in a few studies, the process through which these relationships occur has received little attention. The present study investigated whether task and ego achievement goals were related to excitement, hope, and anxiety and whether these relationships were mediated by challenge and threat appraisals. We also examined whether the two achievement goals interact to predict emotions. Undergraduate students (N = 344) completed a multi-section questionnaire assessing achievement goals, challenge and threat appraisals, perceived competence, hope, excitement, concentration disruption, worry, and somatic anxiety before taking part in a team sport trial. Results showed that task goal was positively related to excitement and hope, and these relationships were mediated by challenge appraisal. In addition, threat appraisal mediated the relationship between task goal and concentration disruption. Ego goal was indirectly related to excitement through challenge appraisal. Finally, ego goal positively predicted concentration disruption at low but not high levels of task goal. Our findings suggest that achievement goals may influence emotions through cognitive appraisals and the interaction between task and ego goals needs to be considered in future research.     

Task Performance and Satisfaction: Evidence for a Task- By Ego-Orientation Interaction1

A significant body of research has documented two achievement goal orientations that individuals can adopt prior to performing a particular task. These orientations have typically been referred to as “task-oriented” or “ego-oriented,” each of which has different implications for task performance and related perceptions. The majority of this research has considered individuals either task- or ego-oriented. There is initial evidence, however, that the two goal orientations may be independent and, therefore, that they may interact to predict various outcomes. The central finding of this study was that task- and ego-orientations did interact to influence task satisfaction and performance. Specifically, high task satisfaction was reported by individuals who had at least a moderately high degree of task orientation irrespective of the level of ego orientation. Alternatively, the most effective performance was observed for individuals who had a dominant achievement goal orientation, regardless of whether it was a task- or ego-orientation. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Self-handicapping strategies in physical education classes: the influence of implicit theories of the nature of ability and achievement goal orientations

Aim: To investigate the role of implicit theories of ability and achievement goals on self-handicapping strategies in physical education classes.Hypotheses: It was expected that incremental theories of ability would be negatively associated with self-handicapping strategies, whereas fixed theories of ability would enhance pupils’ self-reported use of such strategies. It was also hypothesised that low perceived competence would reinforce self-handicapping among pupils holding fixed theories of ability and an ego goal orientation.Method: A cross-sectional study of 9th graders in Norway (N=343; 166 boys and 177 girls) was conducted in which pupils responded to a questionnaire measuring sub-dimensions of fixed and incremental theories of ability, achievement goal orientations, perceived competence and self-handicapping in physical education.Results: Regression-based path analyses revealed that a fixed theory of ability had a direct positive effect on self-handicapping. The effects of an incremental implicit theory of ability on self-handicapping were negative and mediated by a task orientation. High perceived competence was found to buffer the aversive affect of holding a stable theory of ability on self-handicapping.Conclusion: The findings illustrate the importance of studying implicit motivational beliefs in physical education classes in order to provide an understanding of self-handicapping strategies among pupils.     

Female adolescent soccer players' perceived motivational climate,goal orientations,and mindful engagement

The purpose of this study was to examine two objectives: a) a moderation effect of task orientation in the predictive relationship of ego orientation to mindful engagement, and b) the mediational role of female high school soccer players' mindful engagement in the relationship between their perceptions of a caring/task-involving climate and task orientation to their practice strategy use and ability to peak under pressure. Athletes (N = 190, Mage = 15.59) completed measures of aforementioned psychometric variables. The moderation analysis revealed that athletes' task orientation and their mindful engagement were in a positive and significant liner relationship. The final mediation model results suggest that both female high school soccer athletes' mindful engagement and practice strategy use mediate the relationship of their perceptions of a caring/task-involving climate and goal orientations to their ability to peak under pressure. Results suggest that coaches' efforts to create a caring/task-involving climate in sport may help athletes be more task oriented and mindfully engaged in their sport, and thus experience more positive outcomes.     

Temperament,coping, and involuntary stress responses in preadolescent children: the moderating role of achievement goal orientation

Background and objectives: Developmental theorists posit that temperament contributes to preadolescent’s stress response styles. Findings from empirical studies, however, have yielded mixed results, thus indicating a need to consider moderators of this relation. Utilizing an analytic framework guided by resiliency theory [Zimmerman, M. A. (2013). Resiliency theory: A strengths-based approach to research and practice for adolescent health. Health Education &; Behavior, 40, 381–383], this study examined achievement goal orientation as a moderator of the relation between temperament and stress response styles.

Methods: 96 preadolescent–parent dyads (M_age?=?10.30 years, range?=?9–12 years) participated in the study. Preadolescents reported on their achievement goal orientation, coping and involuntary stress responses (ISRs) styles and a parent reported on children’s temperament.

Results: Multiple regressions revealed that effortful control positively predicted preadolescent’s predominant use of engagement coping and negatively predicted predominance of ISRs, but only for children with a predominant mastery goal orientation. For preadolescents with a predominant performance goal orientation, effortful control negatively predicted the predominant use of engagement coping and positively predicted predominance of ISRs. Negative affectivity and its interaction with goal orientation did not predict coping or ISR styles.

Conclusions: Findings suggest that a predominant mastery goal orientation may function as a promotive factor by enhancing the contribution of effortful control to engagement coping styles and buffering against unmanaged reactivity.     

课堂成就目标定向、任务难度、学业水平与元认知监控策略运用

以217名高中生为被试,采用计算机监控的活动操作法,探讨课堂成就目标定向、任务难度对不同学业水平学生元认知监控策略运用的影响。结果表明：（1）课堂掌握目标定向下均比在课堂成绩目标定向下更多地运用元认知监控策略;（2）高学业学生在较难任务上比较易任务上更多地运用元认知监控策略;低学业学生,在课堂掌握目标定向下．在较难任务上比较易任务上更多地使用元认知监控策略;在课堂成绩目标定向下,与课堂掌握目标定向情形相反;（3）临场动机中的自我效能感、目标方向、努力程度在课堂成就目标定向、任务难度对元认知监控策略的影响中具有中介作用。     

Sports participation and fair play

This study examined whether the participation in intermediate contact sports affects the opinions about the behaviors and attitudes of fair play in the sports context and whether these effects are influenced by ego orientation. The participants were high level sportsmen from university and professional basketball and football players (N = 131). They filled in questionnaires to assess their participation in sports, their goal orientations, and their fair play attitudes and behaviors. The analyses of the structural equation model indicated that participation in intermediate contact sports predicted ego orientation; these analyses consecutively predicted low levels of fair play. The direct effects of sports participation in fair play decreased significantly in the presence of ego orientation, indicating that the last construct partially mediates the relation between the first two variables. These discoveries help us to better understand the processes that operate in contact sports. Finally, their implications for eliminating unsportsmanlike behaviors are discussed.     

A Test of Multiple Achievement Goal Benefits in Physical Education Activities

The independent and combined effects of achievement goals for physical education activities were investigated. Both dispositional goal orientations as well as perceived motivational goal climate were assessed, and the paper evaluated four different hypotheses for multiple goal benefits (additive, interactive, specialized, and selective hypotheses). It was hypothesized that students may benefit most from endorsing both task and ego orientations in their fitness activities, especially depending on their perceptions of the motivational climate. However, benefits of pursuing multiple goal orientations were not found. Instead, students reported putting forth more effort, enjoying their fitness activities more, feeling more competent in the activity, and persisting after the semester when they endorsed a task orientation or perceived the motivational climate to be task oriented.     

Understanding the impact of intrinsic versus extrinsic goal framing on exercise performance: The conflicting role of task and ego involvement

ObjectivesBased on self-determination theory [SDT; Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (2000). The “what” and the “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–268], the present study examines whether the negative effect of framing an exercise activity in terms of an extrinsic, relative to an intrinsic, goal attainment on performance occurs because extrinsic, relative to intrinsic, goal framing detracts individuals’ attention from the exercise activity, thereby undermining a task involvement, while simultaneously activating the tendency to prove one's ability by outperforming others, thus promoting ego involvement.DesignTwo experimental studies among 10th, 11th, and 12th grade students during their physical education classes were conducted.MethodsT-testing, one-way ANOVA analyses and regression analyses were performed to examine main effects and mediatonal effects, respectively.ResultsResults confirmed the hypotheses and further showed that being ego involved when being taught a new exercise activity is antithetical to the development of a task involvement, indicating that goal involvement (in contrast to goal orientations) is a bipolar construct.DiscussionFindings are discussed in terms of the processes that link goal framing to exercise performance and in terms of the ongoing controversy among achievement goal theorists whether being ego involved in the activity or adopting an ego-approach orientation is facilitative or maladaptive for optimal performance. Regarding the latter issue, a new multiple goal perspective, that is the regulatory goal perspective, is introduced.