Communicative factors,conflict progression,and use of reconciliatory strategies in pre‐school boys‐a series of random events or a sequential process?

Affiliative interactions between former opponents soon after a conflict, in non‐human primates and pre‐school children, have been documented to be followed by a reduction of future aggression and stress reactions, and to promote tolerance between individuals. The phenomenon has, therefore, been called reconciliation. Studies of non‐human primates have shown that the conflict cause can influence the reconciliatory outcome, and whether the aggressor or the victim of the aggression is more likely to take the initiative to reconcile, can differ between species. Few studies in pre‐school children have addressed how factors preceding the post‐conflict period, such as social interactions before the conflict outbreak, or the cause of the conflict, may be related to the likelihood of reconciliation, conflict progression, and conflict outcome in the form of possible continuation or initiation of interactions. Twenty boys were video‐recorded during free‐play at six pre‐schools. The existence of social interaction between the opponents in the upcoming conflict was examined in the pre‐conflict period. The observed causes of conflict were determined and classified into five categories. The affiliative behaviors identified in the post‐conflict period were classified into six categories. Finally, whether or not conflicts were followed by communicative exchanges in the succeeding non‐conflict period was documented. The results revealed that the cause of the conflict is associated with whether opponents had established social interaction prior to conflict in the pre‐conflict period. Acceptance rates (for the various categories of affiliative behaviors) appeared to differ. A non‐random pattern of conflict progression was apparent, suggesting the conflict cause was related to the category of reconciliatory strategy shown by the individuals. The aggressor and the victim initiated reconciliation at similar rates, with the exception of verbal apologies, which were initiated most often by the aggressor. Finally, the data also showed that higher frequencies of social interaction between former opponents in the succeeding non‐conflict period were associated both with whether or not social interaction had occurred in the pre‐conflict period, and whether or not the conflict was reconciled. In conclusion, communicative factors preceding conflicts, and conflict cause, are distinctively correlated with both the use and the outcome of post‐conflict affiliation in pre‐school boys. Aggr. Behav. 00:000–000, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Reconciliation pattern after aggression among Japanese preschool children

Using an ethological observation method (the PC‐MC comparison method), this study investigated patterns of reconciliation after aggression among Japanese preschool children, focusing on factors that influenced its occurrence or acceptance, as well as on strategies and function. There were several factors among four‐year‐olds that facilitated reconciliatory attempts and acceptance, such as proximity after the aggression; among three‐year‐olds there were no such factors. Depending on the situation during and after aggression, children used ‘explicit’ (e.g., apologizing, compromising, and offering objects) and ‘implicit’ (e.g., being friendly, talking without apologizing, and touching the opponent gently) reconciliatory strategies. Reconciliation occurred more often among friends than among non‐friends, particularly among four‐year‐olds. However, after considering the baseline affiliation level, the conciliatory tendency among non‐friends was higher than that among friends in four‐year‐olds. Victims' self‐directed behavior (SDB) ‐ a behavioral index of stress ‐ was elevated following aggression, but decreased following reconciliation. This suggests that reconciliation functions to reduce the post‐conflict stress suffered by the targets of aggression. Aggress. Behav. 31:000–000, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

An experimental study of behavioural coping strategies in free-ranging female Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus)

A fundamental goal of stress research is to understand how individuals cope with challenges. Studies on a range of vertebrate species suggest that three groups of behaviour-affiliative, aggressive and self-directed behaviours-serve as coping strategies. To date, experimental studies of coping behaviour have tended to be conducted in captive conditions; the limited number of studies in free-ranging or wild settings have been observational in nature. We investigated coping behaviours in free-ranging female Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) at Trentham Monkey Forest, UK, using an experimental playback approach to quantify subjects' responses to mildly aversive threat-grunts. Compared to silent control trials, playbacks of threat-grunts increased aggressive behaviours and one of the two self-directed behaviours examined (self-scratching). No such differences were seen for self-grooming, or for any affiliative behaviour. Elevations in the rate of one measure of aggression, lunging, were positively related to an average measure of adrenocortical activity (median faecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels over the study period). Evidence from females in a variety of Old World monkey species, including Barbary macaques, indicates that affiliative behaviours have an important role in coping with stressful events in the medium to longer term. Our results suggest that, in the short term, female Barbary macaques may use aggressive rather than affiliative behaviours in response to mild stress. These findings highlight the importance of considering how coping mechanisms may vary over time after a stressor, and how coping mechanisms relate to adrenocortical activity. Playback approaches like ours provide a powerful, flexible tool to explore issues such as this in free-ranging and wild animal populations.     

(Not) Thinking about you: Differences in victims’ and perpetrators’ self-focus after interpersonal and intergroup transgressions

We tested the hypothesis that, following a transgression, victims and perpetrators differ in their focus of attention. In three studies (total N = 740), we manipulated participants’ social role (victim vs. perpetrator) in a hypothetical scenario (Studies 1 and 2) and in a perceived real conflict (Study 3) in an interpersonal (Studies 1 and 2) and an intergroup (Study 3) context. Results from all studies confirmed that victims show a stronger self-focus than perpetrators. Moreover, results suggest victims’ higher self-focus as a predictor of willingness to reconcile. Participants’ self-focus mediated the effect of social role on reconciliation intentions as a single mediator (Study 2), or in sequence with their motivation to consider the other party's needs (Study 3). Overall, the present research suggests that victims and perpetrators differ in their focus of attention, and that this difference has important theoretical and practical implications for reconciliation between individuals and between groups.     

Case study of a one‐sided attack by multiple troop members on a nontroop adolescent male and the death of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)

An adolescent wild male Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata), following Kinkazan A troop, was attacked one‐sidedly by multiple members of the troop. The victim was identified as PI, and was estimated to be seven±one year old. The aggressive interaction was recorded by video camera until the end. Although at least 16 troop members approached PI more than once, only three males (one adult, two adolescents) of A troop attacked him. PI kept crouching throughout the attack, then escaped to the shore and dived into the sea. The interaction continued for more than one hour. PI was found dead a few hours after the end of interaction. The damage caused by the assailants was not the direct cause of PI's death; it was due to hypothermia caused by drifting in the sea. PI's life history was reconstructed from past records. PI was a normal adolescent male who migrated from an all‐male group around B₁ troop and started ranging around A troop. The aggressive interaction is believed to be a typical example of conflict between troop males and a nontroop male. The interaction period was very long compared with previous reports on such conflicts among Japanese macaques. PI kept crouching in open areas, exposing himself as a potential competitor for the resources of the troop, and did not show any submissive or reconciliatory behavior toward the troop males. This may be why the troop males did not stop the attack. Aggr. Behav. 35:334–341, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Calming an aggressor through spontaneous post‐conflict triadic contacts: Appeasement in Macaca tonkeana

Peaceful third‐party interventions usually occur after an aggressive encounter and can be directed toward the victim or the aggressor. Macaca tonkeana, a cercopithecine species characterized by high levels of tolerance, frequently engage in consolatory contacts, which both calm the victim and reduce the probability of further attacks against him/her. Other post‐conflict affiliative interventions such as reconciliation and quadratic affiliation are also common in this species. However, little attention has been given to contacts directed toward the aggressor. Here, we explore the role of bystander affiliative interventions toward the aggressor in influencing the affective state of the aggressor and the consequences of triadic interventions at group level. We found that triadic post‐conflict affiliation occurred independently from the intensity of the conflict and that it was more frequent in absence of the conciliatory contact between the opponents (reconciliation). Bystanders showed a higher amount of post‐conflict affiliation toward low ranking aggressors. Post‐conflict triadic affiliation functioned as a tension reduction mechanism by lowering the arousal of the aggressor, which less frequently engaged in renewed aggression. All these findings suggest that post‐conflict triadic contacts in Tonkean macaques can be considered as a strategic mechanism to calm the aggressor and reduce the risk of retaliatory aggression.

     

Impact of artificial fissioning and social networks on levels of aggression and affiliation in primates

Levels of aggression may be affected by stability of social relationships or by population density. A number of studies of nonhuman primates have indicated that spatial density influences agonistic activity levels less than does social density. Artificial fissioning of a captive troop of rhesus macaques was undertaken and the resultant differences in patterns of aggression and affiliation were examined. If population density has a major effect on levels of aggression, then fissioning will result in a decrease in aggression; if social stability has a major effect on levels of aggression, then fissioning is likely to be accompanied by an increase in aggression. An increase in rates of both aggressive and affiliative behavior resulted from artificial troop fissioning. These findings concur with other studies that have concluded that social stability is a more important determinant of primate aggression than is population density. Nonhuman primates use affiliative mechanisms to adjust their behavior when population density increases such that potentially adverse consequences of crowding are avoided.     

Aggressive behavior in the free-ranging rhesus monkeys of kathmandu,nepal

We present a composite sample of the aggressive behavior of free-ranging rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), recorded at two temples in Kathmandu, Nepal. We analyze the total number and the rate per monkey of threats, chases, attacks, fights, and aggressive acts directed at other species (principally humans), in order to elucidate social dynamics of the troop as a whole. Our 1,506 hours of observation were divided among the four seasons; between a.m. and p.m.; and among a temple yard, two parklands, and a forested garden. We found seasonal patterns to be the most important correlates of aggressive behavior. Habitat was a modulating influence, and time of day was the least important factor. Rates of aggression were generally higher per male monkey than per female. In terms of total aggression recorded, however, females instigated significantly more than males, both in encounters between monkeys and in aggression against other species. This finding is consistent with the females' greater numbers in the troop and with their lifelong membership in the troop. Analysis of behavior by social groups, rather than by individual rates, points up the iomportance of adult females and their social stability in troop behavior.     

Peacemaking and consolation in Japanese preschoolers witnessing peer aggression

This article reports developmental changes relating to reconciliation and bystanders' affiliation with victims of aggression (i.e., consolation) among 3- to 5-year-old Japanese preschool children. Use of the post-conflict-matched control (PC-MC) method revealed that the frequency with which reconciliation and consolation were offered to a victim increased steeply in 5-year-olds, compared with 3- and 4-year-olds. The complexity of contextual factors affecting the occurrence of reconciliation and the form of consolation increased with age. Consolation occurred more often before reconciliation than after among all but the 3-year-olds and occurred more often when no reconciliation occurred than when it did occur among all classes. These findings support the view that consolation functions as a substitute for reconciliation, lessening the tension experienced by the victim of aggression.     

Development of co-feeding behavior in young wild Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)

This study describes the developmental course of the social context of feeding behavior in infants and yearlings of Japanese macaques in a provisioned free-ranging troop. Results of this longitudinal study revealed that infants and yearlings exhibited synchronous feeding behavior in the majority of cases in which they had feeding neighbors within 1 m. They consistently showed feeding behavior more often when their closest neighbor fed than when they did not. In feeding situations, infants tended mainly to be in close proximity with their mothers in the early stages of life and, later, also with peers. The results imply that potential opportunities for the social transmission of food selection habits are available for young Japanese macaques in the wild.     

Examining the Relations Among Narcissism, Impulsivity, and Self-Defeating Behaviors

ABSTRACT A recent meta-analysis ( S. Vazire & D. C. Funder, 2006 ) suggested that narcissism and impulsivity are related and that impulsivity partially accounts for the relation between narcissism and self-defeating behaviors (SDB). This research examines these hypotheses in two studies and tests a competing hypothesis that Extraversion and Agreeableness account for this relation. In Study 1 , we examined the relations among narcissism, impulsivity, and aggression. Both narcissism and impulsivity predicted aggression, but impulsivity did not mediate the narcissism–aggression relation. In Study 2 , narcissism was related to a measure of SDB and manifested divergent relations with a range of impulsivity traits from three measures. None of the impulsivity models accounted for the narcissism–SDB relation, although there were unique mediating paths for traits related to sensation and fun seeking. The domains of Extraversion and low Agreeableness successfully mediated the entire narcissism–SDB relation. We address the discrepancy between the current and meta-analytic findings.     

Long-tailed macaques avoid conflicts during short-term crowding

Crowding has been viewed as a factor eliciting increased levels of aggression and tension in gregarious animals. The present study tested predictions derived from two models, the “density/aggression” model and the “active coping” model, which have been proposed to explain the responses of primates to crowding. In particular, we investigated the responses of a well-established group of long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) to short-term crowding. The group was periodically crowded for 2-3 hr into a familiar area. Control observations were carried out when the monkeys were in a six times larger enclosure. Data from 42 individuals belonging to different age-sex classes showed that only mild forms of aggression increased under the crowded condition. Crowding also resulted in a decrease in counteraggression, allogrooming, playing, and exploring the environment, while it produced an increase in huddling with companions. The frequency of reconciliation and redirection was not affected by crowding. These findings do not support either of the models but suggest that macaques adopt a “conflict-avoidance strategy” during short-term crowding. They reduce the risk of severe aggression in an environment where interindividual distances are small by simply decreasing the level of activity. Interestingly, however, when aggression occurs during crowding, tension reduction mechanisms such as reconciliation and redirection are used as often as in control conditions. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Kin recognition loss following anesthesia in beetle larvae (Aleochara bilineata, Coleoptera, Staphylinidae)

Kin recognition is a complex cognitive process, where an individual should detect a phenotypic cue and compare it to an internal template, which might be genetically determined (i.e., innate or acquired). Kin recognition mechanisms will depend on whether previous encounters with kin are possible or not to form the individual internal template. When relatives have never met before, kin recognition is supposed to rely on recognition alleles (which allows the innate recognition of relatives bearing them), or on self-referent phenotype matching (the individual has formed a template using its own phenotype and recognizes as kin individuals which match it closely enough). Although self-referent phenotype matching is in theory the more likely explanation, it has not been possible so far to exclude experimentally the recognition alleles’ hypothesis. Here, we report that kin recognition in the solitary parasitoid larvae of Aleochara bilineata (Coleoptera; Staphylinidae) is suppressed following carbon dioxide anesthesia or chill-coma, both treatments known to cause a temporary amnesia. Treated larvae superparasitize indifferently hosts parasitized either by siblings or by non-kin larvae, while untreated larvae avoid hosts occupied by siblings. The two types of anesthesia thus suppress kin recognition, but their global effect on larvae is different. Chill-coma suppresses the ability to distinguish parasitized from unparasitized hosts and reduces parasitism rate, suggesting an aspecific impairment of sensory receptors or cognition. However, carbon dioxide narcosis only impairs kin recognition, strongly suggesting that an intact memory is necessary for kin recognition to take place. Although this study does not address the recognition alleles’ hypothesis per se, our results strongly support a self-referent phenotype matching mechanism. On the whole, kin recognition in A. bilineata larvae is effective through short-term memory, because it is affected by amnesic treatments.     

Intergroup reconciliation: Instrumental and socio-emotional processes and the needs-based model

We discuss the complexity of the concept of intergroup reconciliation, offer our definition of it, and identify instrumental and socio-emotional processes as distinct processes that facilitate reconciliation. We then present the needs-based model, according to which conflicts threaten victims’ sense of agency and perpetrators’ moral image, and social exchange interactions that restore victims’ and perpetrators’ impaired identities promote reconciliation. We review empirical evidence supporting the model and present extensions of it to (a) contexts of structural inequality, (b) “dual” conflicts, in which both parties transgress against each other, and (c) contexts in which the restoration of positive identities is external to the victim–perpetrator dyad (e.g., third-parties’ interventions). Theoretical and practical implications, limitations, and future research directions are discussed.     

Aggression,friendship, and reconciliation in Russian primary schoolchildren

Aggression and reconciliation were studied in a group of 6‐ to 7‐year‐old Russian schoolchildren using the matched control approach and the two methods used in primate ethology—the postconflict period–matched control period and the time rule methods. Aggression was found to be positively correlated with friendly behavior at the dyadic level. It is demonstrated that children, like nonhuman primates, tend to reconcile within 1 min after the conflict. Victims tend to redirect aggression at other individuals. No effect of gender on reconciliation was found. The reconciliation tendency is less expressed in friends than in children who are not friends. A new reconciliation measure is introduced, and an operational definition of friendship is suggested. Aggr. Behav. 25:125–139, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Variability in behavior frequencies and consistency in transactions across seasons in captive Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)

Consistent interspecific differences are found in macaque species, ranging from highly hierarchical and nepotistic societies to more tolerant and open social organizations. It still remains to be demonstrated whether intraspecific variation is narrower than interspecific variation. Herein, we quantified social behavior in a captive group of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) to estimate the range of intraspecific variation for a full array of measurements in three different seasons. Despite an increased frequency of aggression found on the part of males during the mating season, the form of the behaviors performed remained relatively unchanged. Transactions during conflicts, approaches, or grooming did not undergo significant variations in relation to season. Frequencies and durations seemed more sensitive to demographic and environmental variations. The values measured in the study group are representative of the Japanese macaque. The results validate the use of transaction measurements in interspecific comparisons, providing that additional factors such as age and sex are taken into account. Aggr. Behav. 29:81–93, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

A needs-based model of reconciliation: satisfying the differential emotional needs of victim and perpetrator as a key to promoting reconciliation

The authors propose that conflict threatens different psychological resources of victims and perpetrators and that these threats contribute to the maintenance of conflict (A. Nadler, 2002; A. Nadler & I. Liviatan, 2004; A. Nadler & N. Shnabel, in press). On the basis of this general proposition, the authors developed a needs-based model of reconciliation that posits that being a victim is associated with a threat to one's status and power, whereas being a perpetrator threatens one's image as moral and socially acceptable. To counter these threats, victims must restore their sense of power, whereas perpetrators must restore their public moral image. A social exchange interaction in which these threats are removed should enhance the parties' willingness to reconcile. The results of 4 studies on interpersonal reconciliation support these hypotheses. Applied and theoretical implications of this model are discussed.     

Intertroop agonistic behavior of a feral Rhesus Macaque troop ranging in town and forest areas in India

The intertroop agonistic behavior of a troop of Macaca mulatta villosa was studied in both forested and urban areas. Intertroop contacts lasted longer and were more likely to involve aggression in the town than in the forest. In particular, adult males and adult females when in urban areas showed a significantly higher rate of the most extreme forms of agonism, such as attacks, chases, and fights, than when in the forest. Data are explained in relation to feeding patterns and environmental differences and show the great flexibility of social behavior in these primates. Genetic selection for a high level of aggression in an urban population of macaques is not considered likely.     

Reconciling sexual orientation and Christianity: Black same-gender loving men's experiences

This qualitative study examined the methods that Black same-gender loving (SGL) men used to reconcile their sexual orientation and Christianity. Specifically, the study sought to answer two questions: (1) What does it mean to Black SGL men to have reconciled their Christian beliefs and participation with their sexual orientation? and (2) What specific methods do Black SGL men use to reconcile their Christian beliefs and participation with their sexual orientation? Seven Black Christian SGL men participated in the study. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis was conducted and yielded eight themes: happiness with and acceptance of self; sense of integrity; geographically distancing self from family and home church; personal interpretation of Biblical text; educating self about same-sex sexual orientation; seeking interpersonal support from and providing interpersonal support for other Black SGL people; use of lived experiences to guide actions; and reconciliation as a practice. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Seeking revenge or seeking reconciliation? How concern for social‐image and felt shame helps explain responses in reciprocal intergroup conflict

In conflicts with reciprocal violence, individuals belong to a group that has been both perpetrator and victim. In a field experiment in Liberia, West Africa, we led participants (N = 146) to focus on their group as either perpetrator or victim in order to investigate its effect on orientation towards inter‐group reconciliation or revenge. Compared to a perpetrator focus, a victim focus led to slightly more revenge orientation and moderately less reconciliation orientation. The effect of the focus manipulation on revenge orientation was fully mediated, and reconciliation orientation partly mediated, by viewing the in‐group's social‐image as at risk. Independent of perpetrator or victim focus, shame (but not guilt) was a distinct explanation of moderately more reconciliation orientation. This is consistent with a growing body of work demonstrating the pro‐social potential of shame. Taken together, results suggest how groups in reciprocal conflict might be encouraged towards reconciliation and away from revenge by feeling shame for their wrongdoing and viewing their social‐image as less at risk. As victims and perpetrators are widely thought to have different orientations to inter‐group reconciliation and revenge, we suggest that work on reciprocal conflicts should account for the fact that people can belong to a group that has been both perpetrator and victim.