When mixed options are preferred in multiple‐trial decisions

We report three studies showing that in prospective multiple‐trial decisions people often select a mix of sure and risky options over pure bundles of either option. Such a preference is not ‘rational’ because a mixed option cannot be the EV‐maximizing choice. Experiment 1 confirmed a mixed‐option preference for gains but not for losses. Showing a graph of the multiple‐trial outcome distribution reduced but did not eliminate this effect, suggesting that it is not due purely to a failure to aggregate correctly over the multiple trials. Experiment 2 replicated the mixed option preference using a wider range of problems. Experiment 3 compared choices in the trinary choice conditions used in Experiments 1 and 2 with binary choices between pairs of the multiple‐trial sure, mixed, and risky options. In the binary choice condition the mixed option was no longer the modal choice, suggesting that the strong mixed option preference found in the trinary choice conditions is mainly due to a compromise effect. However, the binary choice probabilities did show violations of strong stochastic transitivity in a pattern that suggested a slight bias toward the mixed option. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effect of item feedback on multiple‐choice test responses

This study examines the effects of item feedback on multiple‐choice test responses. In the first experiment, a positive effect was predicted under instructions advising a penalty for errors; a larger beneficial effect on female scores was expected, given the (presumed) tendency of female participants toward omission when uncertain. Feedback effects were either negligible or negative, and the expected interaction effect with gender was not found. The second experiment was a high‐powered replication of the feedback effect on errors, controlling for participants' ability. The discussion takes into account other evidence to state that recommendations of providing item feedback in the context of testing are neither theoretically nor empirically founded.     

Basis of metamemory judgments for text with multiple‐choice,essay and recall tests

Accuracy of metamemory for text was compared for multiple‐choice, essay and recall tests. Essay and recall tests were scored with Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA), number of correct idea units and number of word matches. Each measure was correlated with college students' predictions and posttest confidence judgments across texts to determine metamemory accuracy. Metamemory accuracy varied for different types of tests with multiple‐choice tests generally producing greater accuracy than essay tests. However, metamemory accuracy for essay and recall tests depended on the measure used to score them. Number of correct idea units produced the highest metamemory accuracy, word matches produced an intermediate level, and LSA produced the lowest accuracy. Students used the quantity of output in their judgments, so performance measures that related most strongly to quantity matched judgments better than measures based on answer quality. The results are compatible with an accessibility account of judgments about performance on text. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Self‐Control Moderates Decision‐Making Behavior When Minimizing Losses versus Maximizing Gains

We examined (1) whether people would be more responsive to the delayed consequences of their decisions when attempting to minimize losses than when attempting to maximize gains in a history‐dependent decision‐making task and (2) how trait self‐control would moderate such an effect. In two experiments, participants performed a dynamic decision‐making task where they chose one of two options on each trial. The increasing option always gave a smaller immediate reward but caused future rewards for both options to increase. The decreasing option always gave a larger immediate reward but caused future rewards for both options to decrease. In Experiment 1 where the two options had equivalent expected value in the long run, participants were more prone to select the increasing option, which yielded larger benefits on future trials, in the loss‐minimization condition than in the gain‐maximization condition. Trait self‐control moderated the effect of losses by enhancing the effect for low self‐control participants while attenuating it for high self‐control participants. In Experiment 2 where selecting the increasing option was suboptimal, low self‐control participants still attempted to reduce losses on future trials by selecting the increasing option more often than high self‐control participants. These results suggest that decision makers value delayed consequences of their actions more in a losses domain relative to a gains domain and low self‐control individuals are more susceptible to such an effect. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evaluation of multiple‐alternative prompts during tact training

This study compared 2 methods of fading prompts while teaching tacts to 3 individuals who had been diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The 1st method involved use of an echoic prompt and prompt fading. The 2nd method involved providing multiple‐alternative answers and fading by increasing the difficulty of the discrimination. An adapted alternating‐treatments design showed that both procedures were more effective than a no‐intervention control condition. Providing multiple alternatives did not increase error rates or teaching time, and better maintenance was shown for tacts taught with the multiple‐alternative prompt.     

Recommendations for reporting multiple‐baseline designs across participants

Two recommendations are offered for reporting multiple‐baseline designs across participants. These recommendations will better enable readers to (a) distinguish concurrent from nonconcurrent multiple‐baseline designs and (b) determine the temporal order in which sessions were conducted in concurrent multiple‐baseline designs. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A multiple‐stimulus‐without‐replacement assessment for sexual partners: Purchase task validation

The current study developed and tested a multiple‐stimulus‐without‐replacement (MSWO) assessment for potential sexual partners for use in research on human immunodeficiency virus. College students (N = 41) first completed an MSWO assessment and then completed a hypothetical purchase task for encounters with partners identified by the MSWO as high, median, and low preference. Overall, hypothetical purchase task responding was consistent with that from the MSWO, in that the highest valuation was observed for the high‐preference partner and the lowest for the low‐preference partner. Potentially interesting individual differences in purchase task responding, however, were obtained; some subjects showed differentiated responding among the 3 preference levels (n = 15), whereas others similarly valued high‐ and median‐preference partners (n = 5), and others similarly valued low‐ and median‐preference partners (n = 18).     

The self‐choice effects on memory and individual differences in emotional intelligence

The present study examined the self‐choice effects on intentional memory and the relation between individual differences in emotional intelligence, and the size of the self‐choice effects. Word pairs were supplied to the participants in either a self‐choice or forced‐choice condition. In the self‐choice condition the participants were asked to choose one of the words that elicited more pleasant or more unpleasant episodes, and to remember the chosen word. In the forced‐choice condition one of the paired words was underlined to signify that it was the word to remember. For participants who chose a word that elicited more pleasant episodes, self‐choice effects were observed in pleasant‐pleasant and pleasant‐unpleasant word pairs. However, for participants who were asked to choose a word that elicited more unpleasant episodes, the effects were found in unpleasant‐unpleasant and pleasant‐unpleasant word pairs. The size of the self‐choice effects was determined by the level of emotional intelligence.     

Personality,expectations, and response strategies in multiple‐choice question examinations in university students: a test of Gray's hypotheses

The relation between personality and type of error made in multiple‐choice examinations when correction for guessing is applied was investigated across two studies. Our general hypothesis was that disinhibited subjects (those scoring high on the Sensitivity to Reward (SR) scale and/or low on the Sensitivity to Punishment (SP) scale) would make more incorrect responses and fewer omission errors (blanks) than inhibited subjects (those with high SP and/or low SR scores). The meta‐analyses of 19 examinations in study 1 confirmed our hypotheses for SP, SR, and extraversion. Regression analyses on effect sizes revealed that SP differences were obtained in examinations with low marks, whereas SR differences were obtained in examinations with more responses and fewer questions. Study 2 showed that a low‐mark expectation increased omissions in high‐SP subjects, whereas a high‐mark expectation increased incorrect responses in high‐SR subjects. These results suggest two different mechanisms mediating inhibition/disinhibition: one associated with aversive motivation, and the other with appetitive motivation. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

When goals constrain: Eye movements and memory for goal‐Oriented map study

Perspective goals, such as studying a map to learn a route through an environment or the overall layout of an environment, produce memory congruent with the goal‐directed rather than the studied perspective. One explanation for this finding is that perspective goals guide attention towards actively gathering relevant information during learning. A second explanation is that information is automatically organized into a goal‐congruent spatial model that guides retrieval. Both explanations predict goal‐congruent memory, but only the former one predicts eye movement differences during study. The present experiment investigated the effect of perspective goals on eye movement during map study and the flexibility of resulting spatial memories. Results demonstrate eye movements towards goal‐congruent map elements during learning, and lasting memory effects at test. These findings carry implications for the design of adaptive hand‐held and in‐vehicle navigation interfaces that accommodate for varied user goals. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Examining change in maximal reliability for multiple‐component measuring instruments

A method for examining change in maximal reliability for pre‐specified sets of congeneric measures when developing a multi‐component instrument is outlined. The approach is applicable for purposes of estimation and testing of gain or loss in the maximal reliability coefficient as a consequence of adding or dropping one or more measures from a homogeneous composite with uncorrelated errors, as well as when one is concerned with optimal component choice for highest increase or correspondingly smallest drop in maximal reliability. The method is compared with a procedure for ascertaining change in unweighted sum score reliability, and implications for instrument construction and revision are discussed. The approach is illustrated with a numerical example.     

A post hoc analysis of multiple‐stimulus preference assessment results

Fifteen individuals with developmental disabilities participated in multiple‐stimulus without replacement preference assessments (seven assessment sessions, seven trials each). Twelve of 15 individuals completed a second set of preference assessments 6 months later. Post hoc analyses indicated that in 25 of 27 cases, the same most preferred stimulus was identified in the first three trials as the full seven trials. Additionally, five sessions of three trials each were sufficient to identify the most highly preferred stimulus in 22 of 27 instances. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Estimation of maximal reliability for multiple‐component instruments in multilevel designs

A procedure for point and interval estimation of maximal reliability of multiple‐component measuring instruments in multi‐level settings is outlined. The approach is applicable to hierarchical designs in which individuals are nested within higher‐order units and exhibit possibly related performance on components of a given homogeneous scale. The method is developed within the framework of multi‐level factor analysis. The proposed procedure is illustrated with an empirical example.     

When two are a family: looking backward and looking forward in a group intervention with single‐by‐choice mothers

Objective: We describe a preventive short‐term group intervention with nine single‐by‐choice (SBC) mothers to provide maximal support for parental functioning and to minimize possible emotional and/or developmental difficulties in their children. Method: Dynamically oriented group work (fifteen one‐and‐a‐half‐hour sessions) focused on: elaboration of painful experiences in the peri‐natal period; reducing stress, tension and guilt; helping mothers with problematic aspects of parenting through work on parental self‐image and perceptions of the child and the dyadic interaction; and strengthening their acceptance of the chosen family model. Results: Therapeutic gains described by mothers and facilitators include: reduced tension, anxiety and guilt; improved integration of the mother's parental self‐image and perception of the child; reduced ambivalence in dyadic relationships; strengthening the mother's fantasized triadic relationships; better acceptance of chosen family pattern; mothers' willingness to tell children their birth story. Conclusion: Dynamically oriented preventive group intervention with SBC mothers can identify potential psychological risk factors and help mothers with sensitive aspects of parenting.     

Differences in multiple‐target visual search performance between non‐professional and professional searchers due to decision‐making criteria

Professional visual searches, such as those conducted by airport security personnel, often demand highly accurate performance. As many factors can hinder accuracy, it is critical to understand the potential influences. Here, we examined how explicit decision‐making criteria might affect multiple‐target search performance. Non‐professional searchers (college undergraduates) and professional searchers (airport security officers) classified trials as ‘safe’ or ‘dangerous’, in one of two conditions. Those in the ‘one = dangerous’ condition classified trials as dangerous if they found one or two targets, and those in the ‘one = safe’ condition only classified trials as dangerous if they found two targets. The data suggest an important role of context that may be mediated by experience; non‐professional searchers were more likely to miss a second target in the one = dangerous condition (i.e., when finding a second found target did not change the classification), whereas professional searchers were more likely to miss a second in the one = safe condition.     

Estimation of reliability for multiple‐component measuring instruments in test–retest designs

A covariance structure modelling method for the estimation of reliability for composites of congeneric measures in test–retest designs is outlined. The approach also allows an approximate standard error and confidence interval for scale reliability in such settings to be obtained. The procedure further permits measurement error components due to possible transient condition influences to be accounted for and evaluated, and is illustrated with a pair of examples.     

Confucian dynamism work values and team performance: A multiple‐level analysis

In this study we clarified the multiple‐level effects of Confucian‐related work values, including self‐discipline and interpersonal ethics, on the performance of individuals and the team. Empirical data of 70 work teams with 472 team members from Taiwanese enterprises were collected to test our hypotheses. Results showed that, at the group level, shared team values of interpersonal ethics were positively related to team performance through the partial mediation of team cooperation. For cross‐level effect, shared team values of interpersonal ethics and individual member's self‐discipline values were both positively related to individual performance. The implications of Confucian dynamism work values on contemporary organizational management and indigenous Chinese team theories were provided.     

Denoising forced‐choice detection data

Observers in a two‐alternative forced‐choice (2AFC) detection task face the need to produce a response at random (a guess) on trials in which neither presentation appeared to display a stimulus. Observers could alternatively be instructed to use a ‘guess’ key on those trials, a key that would produce a random guess and would also record the resultant correct or wrong response as emanating from a computer‐generated guess. A simulation study shows that ‘denoising’ 2AFC data with information regarding which responses are a result of guesses yields estimates of detection threshold and spread of the psychometric function that are far more precise than those obtained in the absence of this information, and parallel the precision of estimates obtained with yes–no tasks running for the same number of trials. Simulations also show that partial compliance with the instructions to use the ‘guess’ key reduces the quality of the estimates, which nevertheless continue to be more precise than those obtained from conventional 2AFC data if the observers are still moderately compliant. An empirical study testing the validity of simulation results showed that denoised 2AFC estimates of spread were clearly superior to conventional 2AFC estimates and similar to yes–no estimates, but variations in threshold across observers and across sessions hid the benefits of denoising for threshold estimation. The empirical study also proved the feasibility of using a ‘guess’ key in addition to the conventional response keys defined in 2AFC tasks.     

Self‐framing of risky choice

Previous research on framing effects has largely focused on how choice information framed by external sources influences the response of a decision maker. This research examined how decision makers framed choice options and how the hedonic tone of self‐framing influenced their risk preference. By using pie charts and a complementary sentence‐completion task in Experiment 1, participants were able to interpret and frame the expected choice outcomes themselves before making a choice between a sure option and a gamble in either a life–death or a monetary problem. Each of these self‐frames (phrases) was then rated by a group of independent judges in terms of its hedonic tone. The hedonic tone of self‐frames was mostly positive and was more positive in the life–death than the monetary context, suggesting a motivational function of self‐framing. However, positive outcomes were still more likely to be framed positively than negative outcomes. In Experiment 2, choice outcomes were depicted with a whole‐pie chart instead of a pie slice in order to emphasize positive and negative outcomes equally. The results showed that the hedonic tone of self‐framing was still largely positive and more positive in the life domain than the monetary domain. However, compared to Experiment 1, the risk preference in the life–death domain was reversed, showing an outcome salience effect: when the pie‐slice chart emphasized only survival outcomes, participants were more risk taking under positive hedonic frames whereas when the whole‐pie chart depicted both survival and mortality outcomes, they became risk averse under positive frames. In sum, self‐framing reflected a positive bias in encoding risk information and affected the risk preference of the decision maker. Like the tone of voice used in communication, the hedonic tone of self‐framing, either positive or negative, can affect risk perception of a choice problem. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

How to design an electronic memory aid for brain‐injured patients: Considerations on the basis of a model of prospective memory

There has been an enormous development in the field of electronic memory aids, such as mobile phones, organizers, or combinations of both. Nevertheless, these devices have hardly been useful in the neuropsychological therapy of memory‐impaired patients so far. The model of prospective remembering by Ellis (1996) is used as theoretical background in order to (1) analyse patients' needs concerning electronic memory aids, (2) evaluate the usefulness of electronic memory aids for patients described in the literature, as well as of two commercially available electronic memory aids, and (3) derive conclusions concerning demands on how to design a memory aid suitable for patients. While most of the devices designed for patients improve their reliability by compensating for lack of self‐initiated retrieval, most of them are not able to compensate for problems during execution or evaluation. Commercially available memory devices have the advantage of being available to everybody, but they can only support mildly impaired patients. Patients with more severe deficits, however, need a more suitable interface in order to facilitate data entry. In addition, interactive chains of actions should be implemented in order to support execution and evaluation of future intentions. MEMOS, a system in development that tries to realize these demands, is presented.