Predicting academic self‐handicapping in different age groups: The role of personal achievement goals and social goals

Background. Academic self‐handicapping refers to the use of impediments to successful performance on academic tasks. Previous studies have shown that it is related to personal achievement goals. A performance goal orientation is a positive predictor of self‐handicapping, whereas a task goal orientation is unrelated to self‐handicapping. Aims. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between academic self‐handicapping, goal orientations (task, performance‐approach, performance‐avoidance), social goals, future consequences and achievement in mathematics. An additional aim was to investigate grade‐level and gender differences in relation to academic self‐handicapping. Sample. Participants were 702 upper elementary, junior and senior high school students with approximately equal numbers of girls and boys. Results. There were no grade‐level or gender differences as regards the use of self‐handicapping. The correlations among the variables revealed that, when the whole sample was considered, self‐handicapping was positively related to performance goal orientations and pleasing significant others and negatively to achievement in mathematics. The results of hierarchical regression analysis showed that, in upper elementary and junior high schools, the association between achievement in mathematics and self‐handicapping was mediated by performance‐avoidance goals. In senior high school, only task goal orientation was a negative predictor of self‐handicapping.     

Individual Goal Orientations,Team Empowerment,and Employee Creative Performance: A Case of Cross‐level Interactions

Intrigued by relationship between team motivational context and individual characteristics in the organizational reality, we developed and tested a cross‐level model to investigate the interactive effects of team empowerment and individual goal orientations on individual creative performance through the mediating mechanism of an individual's creative self‐efficacy. Using multi‐wave multi‐source data from 63 R&D teams in three IT companies, we found that (1) team empowerment, individual learning goal orientation, and individual performance orientation are all positively related to individual creative performance through mediation of creative self‐efficacy; (2) learning orientation and performance approach orientation could both supplement the effects of team empowerment on individual creative self‐efficacy. Our findings point to the importance of individual goal orientation in shaping the effects of team motivation climates and provide insights for both scholars and practitioners. The specific practical implications include but are not limited to (1) individuals with learning and performance approach orientations should be identified during hiring procedures given that they could still thrive in less empowered teams and maintain a relatively high level of creative self‐efficacy and creative outcomes; (2) managers should consider assigning employees who are more learning oriented to more empowering and open‐ended tasks in order to obtain better creative results.     

Validation of a Chinese achievement goal orientation questionnaire

Background . The mixed findings of previous studies on the nature and effects of performance goals have led to a call for re‐examination of the dichotomous framework of achievement goal orientation theory. While the call for a revised achievement goal orientation theory has received considerable discussion in Western studies, it is not clear whether the revised theory can also be applied in other ethnic and cultural contexts. Aims . Our aim was to validate the Chinese version of Elliot and Church's (1007) Goal Orientation Questionnaire and to initially test the revised goal orientation theory in the context of Chinese students in Hong Kong. Sample . A total of 270 Chinese students (137 boys and 133 girls) from a primary and secondary school in Hong Kong participated in Study 1. Study 2 involved a total of 9,440 students (5,420 boys and 4,020 girls) from 10 primary and 18 secondary schools in Hong Kong. Method . Participants in Study 1 completed a Chinese Goal Orientation Questionnaire (CGOQ) measuring three types of goal orientation. Exploratory factor analysis, item–total correlation, and reliability analyses were undertaken to assess the psychometric quality of the CGOQ. In Study 2, confirmatory factor analysis was used to provide further validation for the revised questionnaire. The relationships among different goal orientations and that with students' perceived classroom environment and self‐efficacy were also explored using structural equation modelling. Results . Findings of exploratory factor analysis in Study 1 and confirmatory factor analysis in Study 2 supported the proposed factor structure of the CGOQ. All the subscales in the questionnaire also showed good internal consistency reliabilities. The construct validity of the CGOQ was supported by its significant relationship with criterion measures. While most of the relationships between the three types of goal orientation and the learning‐related variables measured in our study were consistent with the revised goal orientation theory, the positive relationships between performance‐avoidance goals, mastery goals, and perceived classroom environment were different from previous studies. Conclusion . Our findings generally supported the trichotomous framework of the revised goal orientation theory with Chinese students in Hong Kong. Consistent with the revised goal orientation theory, our findings indicated that both mastery and performance‐approach goals had positive impacts on students' learning. However, the positive relationships between performance‐avoidance goals, mastery goals, and perceived classroom environment were contradictory to the conceptualization of performance‐avoidance goals in the revised theory. Cultural and social factors affecting Hong Kong students' goal orientations are discussed.     

The relationship between goal orientation and career striving in young adolescents

We surveyed 280 students (61% girls; M = 15.3 years) and, in the context of goal setting theory and self‐regulation, tested a cross‐sectional model in which goal orientation (learning, performance–prove, performance–avoid) was viewed as an antecedent to self‐efficacy and outcome expectations, self‐efficacy and outcome expectations were tested as antecedents to goal setting, and goal setting tested as an antecedent to career‐striving behaviors (exploration, planning). After controlling for educational achievement, learning orientation was directly, positively, associated with self‐efficacy and outcome expectations, and indirectly associated with career aspirations, career exploration, and planning; and performance–avoid orientation was negatively associated with self‐efficacy. The study demonstrated that goal orientation is an important variable to consider when examining career development in adolescents.     

Members Matter in Team Training: Multilevel and Longitudinal Relationships Between Goal Orientation,Self‐Regulation,and Team Outcomes

Longitudinal data from 338 individuals across 64 teams in a simulation‐based team‐training context were used to examine the effects of dispositional goal orientation on self‐regulated learning (self‐efficacy and metacognition). Team goal orientation compositions, as reflected by average goal orientations of team members, were examined for moderating effects on these individual‐level relationships. Finally, individual‐level self‐regulation was investigated for its influence on multiple team‐level outcomes across time. Results showed generally positive effects of learning goal orientation and negative effects of avoid performance and prove performance goal orientations on rates of self‐regulation during team training. However, several of these individual‐level relationships were moderated by team goal orientation composition. The importance of self‐regulation in teams was displayed by results showing the average level of self‐regulation among a team's members over time was positively associated with team efficacy, team cooperation quality, and team decision making.     

Sociocultural antecedents of academic motivation and achievement: Role of values and achievement motives in achievement goals and academic performance

With a view to understand the influence of culture on achievement motivation, the study aimed to test the hypothesized mediating role of individual‐oriented and social‐oriented achievement motives in linking value orientations (e.g. achievement, security, conformity, hedonism) to achievement goals (i.e. mastery‐approach, mastery‐avoidance, performance‐approach, and performance‐avoidance goals) as predictors of English and mathematics achievements. These hypothesized relationships were tested in the one‐path analytic model with a sample of Indonesian high‐school students (n = 356; 46% girls, M age = 16.20 years). The findings showed that security and conformity values positively predicted social‐oriented achievement motive; self‐direction values positively predicted individual‐oriented achievement motive; and hedonism values negatively predicted both achievement motive orientations. Both individual‐oriented and social‐oriented achievement motives positively predicted mastery‐approach and performance‐approach goals. Interestingly, social‐oriented achievement motive also positively predicted mastery‐avoidance and performance‐avoidance goals, which in turn, negatively predicted English and mathematic achievement. There was also some evidence for the direct effects of values on performance‐approach goals and achievement. Taken together, the findings evinced the relevance of achievement goal constructs to Indonesian students and the psychometric properties of the Indonesian version of the Achievement Goals Questionnaire for further use in Indonesia. The study concludes that the meanings of academic motivation and achievement should be seen from a sociocultural perspective relevant to the context in which they are being studied.     

Achievement Goals,Physical Self‐Concept,and Social Physique Anxiety in a Physical Activity Context1

Three studies tested relations between self‐related constructs and approach and avoidance achievement goals in a health‐related physical activity context. Physical self‐concept was hypothesized to be positively related, and social physique anxiety to be negatively related, to approach goals in physical activity. Achievement goals were also expected to mediate relations between the self‐related constructs and behavior. Structural equation models supported the hypothesized pattern of effects in a physical activity context (Study 1). The model for physical activity was invariant across collectivistic and individualistic cultures (Study 2). Relations between physical self‐concept, social physique anxiety, and achievement goals were stronger among regular gym and fitness center users than among nonusers (Study 3). The findings are discussed in relation to achievement goal theory.     

The Effects of a Learning‐Goal Orientation Training on Self‐Regulation: A Field Experiment Among Unemployed Job Seekers

Finding reemployment after job loss is a complex and difficult task that requires extensive motivation and self‐regulation. This study aimed to examine whether improving unemployed job seekers’ cognitive self‐regulation can increase reemployment probabilities. Based on the goal orientation literature, we developed a learning‐goal orientation (LGO) training, which focused on goal setting aimed at improving rather than demonstrating competences and creating a climate of development and improvement. We predicted that the LGO training would influence peoples’ goal orientation towards job seeking, which in turn would relate to learning from failure, strategy awareness, and self‐efficacy, leading to job‐search intentions, resulting in increased reemployment status. Using a 2‐group quasi‐experimental design with 223 unemployed job seekers, we found support for these predictions, except for self‐efficacy. The results suggest that an LGO training is a promising tool to improve self‐regulation in and effectiveness of job search.     

Investigating the Moderating Role of Cultural Practices on the Effect of Selection Fairness Perceptions

Utilizing a sample of applicants to positions in a global corporation, we examined whether cultural practices moderate the effect of selection fairness perceptions on organizational attractiveness and job choice. Positive relationships were anticipated between fairness perceptions and outcomes, and performance orientation and uncertainty avoidance cultural practices were hypothesized to moderate the effects of structural and information sharing perceptions, respectively. Structural fairness perceptions were positively associated with both outcomes, but information‐sharing perceptions were significantly related only to organizational attractiveness. National variability in the effect of selection fairness perceptions was observed only for the effect of structural perceptions on organizational attractiveness. Performance orientation moderated this effect such that the strongest relationship was seen among applicants from more performance‐oriented countries.     

The Impact of Goal‐Performance Discrepancies,Self‐Efficacy,and Goal Orientation on Upward Goal Revision1

The present study examined the role of positive goal‐performance discrepancies (GPDs), self‐efficacy beliefs, and dispositional goal orientation on goal revision processes following performance feedback in a sample of 129 Icelandic job applicants. The results indicated that goal revision was primarily a function of the positive GPD encountered by individuals. However, this relationship was moderated by self‐efficacy, performance goal orientation, and learning goal orientation. Implications of these findings and directions for future research are discussed.     

Le rôle modérateur des orientations vers les objectifs dans la relation entre l’envergure de poste et l’engagement organisationnel

This paper examines the moderating role of goal orientations (learning, performance and avoidance orientation) in the relationship between job scope (i.e., a composite measure capturing task variety, autonomy, feedback and significance) and organizational commitment. Based on a sample of 314 participants, the analyses indicate that job scope is positively related to commitment and that performance orientation and avoidance orientation act as negative moderators of job scope. Specifically, job scope was more strongly related to commitment at low levels of these traits. We discuss the importance of considering the role of employee personality in the study of the effect of work context on commitment.     

Self‐construal and students’ math self‐concept,anxiety and achievement: An examination of achievement goals as mediators

This study examines the role of self‐construal in student learning by testing a mediation model: through math achievement goals, self‐construal predicts math self‐concept and anxiety, which further predict math achievement. A sample of 1196 students from 104 secondary classes in Singapore took a survey and a math achievement test. The results from multi‐group structural equation modelling support measurement invariance and equal path coefficients in the mediation model between boys and girls. Interdependent self‐construal positively predicted mastery approach and avoidance goals, through which interdependent self‐construal had a positive total indirect effect on math anxiety. Independent self‐construal positively predicted mastery approach, performance approach and performance avoidance goals, and through the two approach goals, high independent self‐construal was associated with high math self‐concept. Overall, self‐construal was not associated with math achievement. The findings enhance our understanding of achievement motivation from a sociocultural perspective and help explain East Asian students’ relatively higher anxiety and lower self‐concept in comparison with their Western counterparts as reported in international studies.     

Between Avoidance and Problem Solving: Resilience,Self‐Efficacy,and Social Support Seeking

The authors explored resilience, self‐efficacy, and social support seeking as (a) mediators between stress and problem solving and (b) moderators buffering the effect of stress on avoidance. Participants were 220 college students. Structural equation modeling showed that resilience and self‐efficacy positively influenced problem solving but could not buffer stress's effect on avoidance. Social support seeking played a more important role than resilience and self‐efficacy in reducing avoidance when individuals intentionally used social support seeking as a source for problem solving instead of avoidance.     

Achievement goals as mediators of the relationship between competence beliefs and test anxiety

Background. Previous work suggests that the expectation of failure is related to higher test anxiety and achievement goals grounded in a fear of failure. Aim. To test the hypothesis, based on the work of Elliot and Pekrun (2007) , that the relationship between perceived competence and test anxiety is mediated by achievement goal orientations. Sample. Self‐report data were collected from 275 students in post‐compulsory education following courses in A Level Psychology. Results. Competence beliefs were inversely related to the worry and tension components of test anxiety, both directly and indirectly through a performance‐avoidance goal orientation. A mastery‐avoidance goal orientation offered an indirect route from competence beliefs to worry only. Conclusion. These findings provide partial support for Elliot and Pekrun's (2007) model. Although significant mediating effects were found for mastery‐avoidance and performance‐avoidance goals, they were small and there may be other mechanisms to account for the relations between competence beliefs and test anxiety.     

To master or perform? Exploring relations between achievement goals and conceptual change learning

Background. Research is needed to explore conceptual change in relation to achievement goal orientations and depth of processing. Aims. To address this need, we examined relations between achievement goals, use of deep versus shallow processing strategies, and conceptual change learning using a think‐aloud protocol. Sample and Method. Seventy‐three undergraduate students were assessed on their prior knowledge and misconceptions about Newtonian mechanics, and then reported their achievement goals and participated in think‐aloud protocols while reading Newtonian physics texts. Results. A mastery‐approach goal orientation positively predicted deep processing strategies, shallow processing strategies, and conceptual change. In contrast, a performance‐approach goal orientation did not predict either of the processing strategies, but negatively predicted conceptual change. A performance‐avoidance goal orientation negatively predicted deep processing strategies and conceptual change. Moreover, deep and shallow processing strategies positively predicted conceptual change as well as recall. Finally, both deep and shallow processing strategies mediated relations between mastery‐approach goals and conceptual change. Conclusions. Results provide some support for Dole and Sinatra's (1998) Cognitive Reconstruction of Knowledge Model of conceptual change but also challenge specific facets with regard to the role of depth of processing in conceptual change.     

To please or to neglect your partner? Attachment avoidance and relationship‐driven self‐improvement

Self‐improvement is a potential resource in sustaining relationships. A series of 2 studies with Hong Kong Chinese college samples sought to examine whether attribute‐specific, reflected regard from the partner determines self‐improvement efforts on those attributes and whether attachment avoidance moderates the association. These studies measured self‐improvement effort by retrospective self‐report (Study 1) and evaluation of objects pertinent to attribute‐specific self‐improvement goals (i.e., related self‐help books; Study 2). In general, the results showed that individuals improved their personal qualities when they perceived these qualities as relatively less favorably regarded by their partner. Moreover, attachment avoidance weakened such an association. The role of attachment avoidance in relationship‐driven self‐improvement seems to reflect strategic preference rather than a downplaying of relationship importance.     

Task‐ and self‐related pathways to deep learning: The mediating role of achievement goals,classroom attentiveness,and group participation

Background The expectancy‐value and achievement goal theories are arguably the two most dominant theories of achievement motivation in the contemporary literature. However, very few studies have examined how the constructs derived from both theories are related to deep learning. Moreover, although there is evidence demonstrating the links between achievement goals and deep learning, little research has examined the mediating processes involved. Aims The aims of this research were to: (a) investigate the role of task‐ and self‐related beliefs (task value and self‐efficacy) as well as achievement goals in predicting deep learning in mathematics and (b) examine how classroom attentiveness and group participation mediated the relations between achievement goals and deep learning. Sample The sample comprised 1,476 Grade‐9 students from 39 schools in Singapore. Methods Students' self‐efficacy, task value, achievement goals, classroom attentiveness, group participation, and deep learning in mathematics were assessed by a self‐reported questionnaire administered on‐line. Structural equation modelling was performed to test the hypothesized model linking these variables. Results and conclusions Task value was predictive of task‐related achievement goals whereas self‐efficacy was predictive of task‐approach, performance‐approach, and performance‐avoidance goals. Achievement goals were found to fully mediate the relations between task value and self‐efficacy on the one hand, and classroom attentiveness, group participation, and deep learning on the other. Classroom attentiveness and group participation partially mediated the relations between achievement goal adoption and deep learning. The findings suggest that (a) task‐ and self‐related pathways are two possible routes through which students could be motivated to learn and (b) like task‐approach goals, performance‐approach goals could lead to adaptive processes and outcomes.     

Reasons for Studying: Motivational Orientations and Study Strategies

This study explored the relationship among (a) individual differences in three motivational or goal orientations and (b) valuing and use of study strategies by eighth graders reading expository passages. Task orientation (the goal of learning or understanding for its own sake) was positively correlated with both perceived value and use of strategies requiring deep processing of information. To a lesser degree, task orientation correlated with valuing and use of strategies requiring only surface-level processing. Ego orientation (the goal of demonstrating high ability relative to others) was positively related to use and perceived value of surface-level strategies only. Work avoidance (academic alienation) was negatively related to use and valuing of both kinds of strategies. A path analysis indicated that task orientation, more than perceived ability or knowledge of the value of deep-processing strategies, predicts the spontaneous use of these strategies. That the prediction held over an interval of 4 to 6 weeks suggests the importance of individual differences in motivational orientation. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for strategy training and teaching practice.     

Temperament and self‐based correlates of cooperative,competitive and individualistic learning preferences

People vary in the extent to which they prefer cooperative, competitive or individualistic achievement tasks. In this research, we conducted two studies designed to investigate correlates and possible roots of these social interdependence orientations, namely approach and avoidance temperament, general self‐efficacy, implicit theories of intelligence, and contingencies of self‐worth based in others' approval, competition and academic competence. The results indicated that approach temperament, general self‐efficacy and incremental theory were positively related, and entity theory was negatively related to cooperative preferences (|r| range from .11 to .41); approach temperament, general self‐efficacy, competition contingencies and academic competence contingencies were positively related to competitive preferences (|r| range from .16 to .46); and avoidance temperament, entity theory, competitive contingencies and academic competence contingencies were positively related, and incremental theory was negatively related to individualistic preferences (|r| range from .09 to .15). The findings are discussed with regard to the meaning of each of the three social interdependence orientations, cultural differences among the observed relations and implications for practitioners.     

The influence of motives and goal orientation on feedback seeking

This study examined the relationships between feedback seeking, goal orientation, performance and four motives which, though generally considered to underlie the feedback seeking process, have not previously been measured comprehensively. Both the likelihood and the number of instances of feedback seeking were measured in two samples (employees and students) in association with perceived or selfassessed above- and below-average performance. Self-assessed performance was a major predictor of feedback seeking; also influential were goal orientation and the goal orientation-performance interaction. Increased feedback seeking was associated with the desire for useful information motive, and reduced feedback seeking with the ego defence and defensive impression management motives. The desire for useful information motive mediated the influence of performance-prove goal orientation for employees, and that of a learning goal orientation for students.