Holland's theoretical signs of consistency and differentiation and their relationship to academic potential and achievement

The study was designed to assess Holland's theoretical signs of consistency and differentiation as measures of academic aptitude and achievement. Holland postulates that levels of consistency and differentiation on the Self Directed Search (SDS) may be used to assess a person's educational-vocational potential, achievement, or status. Using the SDS and a sample of investigative male subjects (N = 127), Holland's theoretical signs of consistency and differentiation were tested on measures of academic aptitude and achievement over a four year college period. Academic aptitude was assessed by the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and academic achievement by cumulative grade point average (GPA) over a four year college period. The findings show significant differences on SAT scores for the sign of differentiation but no significant differences for GPA over a four year college period. The results also show no significant differences on SAT or GPA for the sign of consistency. Future research is recommended on Holland's theoretical signs before they can be incorporated into a complete and useful diagnostic system.     

The predictive power of Holland's investigative personality type and consistency levels using the self directed search

Using the Self Directed Search (SDS), the predictability of Holland's Investigative personality type and the three levels of consistency were assessed. A sample of male Investigative subjects (N = 171) who completed the SDS as freshmen in 1970 was sent a questionnaire 4 years later. The questionnaire asked subjects to state their academic major, occupational plan upon graduation, and occupational plan 5 years hence. Hypotheses concerned the predictability over a 4-year college period of (1) one-, two-, and three-letter SDS and most recent daydream codes and (2) Holland's three levels of consistency. Results indicated that, for Investigative-type freshman males, the SDS has moderately high efficiency in predicting, 4 years later, their ultimate major and their immediate and future vocational plans. The differential predictability of Holland's three consistency levels was supported in 20 of the 27 tests applied.     

Personality Types and Vocational Choice: A Test of Holland's Theory

In order to test the adequacy of Holland's theory of vocational choice with reference to a broad segment of entering college students, a sample of the freshman class entering the Pennsylvania State University evaluated themselves in terms of the six personality styles of Holland's theory. Relationships between the personality styles and vocational choices were studied for groups of Decided, Tentative, and Undecided students. While several inversions in the data are evident, the data possess sufficient consistency to indicate that the personality identifications these students made in Holland's frame of reference were related to their initial vocational choices.     

The Relationship Between Career Maturity and Congruence,Consistency, and Differentiation Among Individuals With and Without Learning Disabilities

This study investigated the relationship between career maturity and Holland's (1985a) constructs of congruence, consistency, and differentiation among individuals with and without learning disabilities. In addition, it examined whether a relationship exists between Holland's (1985a) Investigative personality type and career maturity in individuals with and without learning disabilities. Results yielded no statistically significant associations between career maturity and any of the 3 constructs for either group of individuals. Similarly, no relationship was found between Investigative personality types and career maturity. Last, the 2 groups studied did not differ on the 3 constructs.     

An enhanced examination of Holland's consistency and differentiation hypotheses

The research support for Holland's concepts of consistency and differentiation has been equivocal (Nauta, 2010). To provide a reexamination of these concepts, a new method of operationalizing Holland's constructs of consistency and differentiation using the cosine fit function to the RIASEC score profile is proposed. The relation of these new indices to career certainty, congruence and the moderation of the congruence–certainty relation were examined in a sample of 118 college students (study 1). Support was found for the superiority of the cosine fit definitions of consistency and differentiation over the traditional representations. The cosine fit indices were further examined in a second study on 167 adults examining interest stability over 15 years. The cosine fit indices of consistency and differentiation were related to both occupational stability over 15 years and career satisfaction. The results suggest that the concepts of differentiation and consistency may still have merit but only with more exact methods of specification.     

Holland's personality constructs as predictors of stability of choice

It was the purpose of this study to test Holland's assertion that stability of vocational choice can be predicted from: (a) congruence of personality with chosen career, (b) differentiation of personality, and (c) internal consistency of personality characteristics. The relationship of each of the three constructs to stability of choice of college major was studied among 167 university students. It was hypothesized that prediction could be improved by combining congruence, differentiation, and consistency in a multiple relationship. The relative importance of the three constructs was examined. Findings supported Holland's contention that congruence and consistency are positively related to stability. No significant relationship was found between differentiation and stability. When combined, all three constructs predict stability, but the efficiency of prediction is not improved by adding differentiation and/or consistency to congruence. As hypothesized, congruence was found to be the most important predictor, followed in importance by differentiation and consistency, respectively.     

Holland's vocational models: A study of work groups and need satisfaction

This study was designed to investigate two topics: (1) the concurrent validity of Holland's theory for employed men, and (2) the pattern of needs associated with occupations exemplifying each of Holland's vocational models. Concurrent validity was investigated by administering the Vocational Preference Inventory to 230 male workers well established in occupational milieus that match Holland's six vocational environments. With the exception of the Realistic scale of the VPI, the five remaining vocational scales distributed eight work groups, identified as representative of each of Holland's six vocational models, in a comparable fashion according to their interests. Empirical results on two nonvocational scales (Masculinity and Status) support Holland's vocational models.     

Cross-Cultural Validity of Holland's Model in Hong Kong

While Holland's model has been widely tested and found broad support in the West, it has not been tested in Hong Kong. Using a sample of 1813 entering freshmen, we investigated the cross-cultural validity of Holland's models of six interest or personality types in Hong Kong. Results indicated: (a) Holland's model as operationalized by UNIACT has considerable external validity; (b) the internal structure of the UNIACT was generally consistent with the formulations by Holland; (c) the cultural value of traditionality affected the fit between Holland's model and the student data in that Hong Kong students who hold stronger traditional values tended to behave less consistently with Holland's model than those who hold weaker traditional Chinese values. These findings were discussed in terms of their implication for future cross-cultural vocational psychology research and practices.     

Holland's SDS: Is its effectiveness contingent upon selected variables?

This study was designed to investigate the differential effectiveness of Holland's Self Directed Search (SDS) as a vocational guidance tool for 166 junior-class students in a suburban regional high school. The SDS was administered to 90 girls and 76 boys who were subsequently interviewed and asked to state current first and second vocational choices. The relation between these choices and the students' three-letter SDS codes was translated into numerical Congruence Scores. Students were also grouped according to: (1) their SDS codes' level of consistency with Holland's hexagonal model; (2) differentiation of codes; (3) level of mental ability; and (4) level of achievement. Four two-way analyses of variance were used to assess the effect of these variables on Congruence Scores; in each analysis, sex was the second classification in order to measure interaction-effects. Results indicated no significant mean differences on Congruence Scores attributable to these variables. The effectiveness of the SDS as a career inventory does not appear to be contingent upon them.     

The relationship between Holland's SDS differentiation scale and psychological adjustment

The study examined the relationship between Holland's SDS differentiation scales and indices of psychological adjustment on the MMPI. The independent variables were: degree of differentiation as calculated with an Iachan Index, and level of differentiation derived from averaging the six SDS summary profile scores. Two indices of the dependent variable, psychological adjustment, were used: the ego-strength score and the average elevation of eight clinical scales on the MMPI. Fifty-one subjects were recruited. Two multiple regression. analyses revealed a nonsignificant R² of 0.01. The results indicated that the SDS career interest differentiation scales were not related to the MMPI indices, and do not appear useful in predicting degree of psychological adjustment. This finding challenges Holland's theoretical contention that individuals who are undifferentiated may be in need of personal counseling. A second finding was the successful use of the SDS with residential psychiatric patients.     

Measures of consistency for Holland-type codes

“Consistency” in Holland's theory refers to the extent to which more closely related scale types are found together in codes of the Self-Directed Search sort. This paper describes two new measures of consistency. One is based on the hexagonal model and is for use with 3-point codes. The other is based on conditional probabilities and is for use with 2-point codes.     

Influence of adolescent social crowds on the development of vocational identity

A major gap in Holland's theory of vocational identity has been specification of the developmental antecedents of the six personality types. The present paper extends Geoffrey Kelso's work on the developmental antecedents of Holland's types by examining the relationship between membership in adolescent social crowds and vocational identity in early adulthood. In four samples (total N = 274), membership in five junior high school crowds—Motorheads, Brains, Freaks, Politicos, and Conformists—was found to be associated with higher scores on the Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Enterprising, and Conventional scales, respectively, of Holland's Self-Directed Search and Vocational Preference Inventory in early adulthood. The relative impact of temperament, family, and peer variables on the development of vocational identity is discussed.     

Modification of children's gender-stereotyped behavior: General issues and research considerations

This paper reviews some recent studies that have attempted to change gender-stereotyped behavior or attitudes in children. While such efforts have often been successful, at least on a short-term basis, enough inconsistency exists to suggest that more detailed theoretical analyses are required to increase the efficacy of such modification attempts. The review suggested at least four factors that needed additional empirical and theoretical attention as factors in susceptibility to counterstereotyping manipulations. These included: (a) the child's developmental level, (b) the relationship between sex role cognitions and behavior, (c) the degree of situational consistency of gender-stereotyped behavior, and (d) the role of individual initial differences in determining modification outcomes. The importance of these factors are discussed in the context of the existing literature.     

a test of holland's theory of vocational personalities and work environments

This study investigated the validity of J. L. Holland's (1997) theory of vocational personalities and work environments. The sample consisted of 241 randomly selected members of the National Association of School Psychologists, each of whom completed a demographic data form, the Self‐Directed Search‐Revised (SDS‐R; J. L. Holland, 1994) and a modified short form of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (D. J. Weiss, R. V. Dawis, G. W. England, & L. H. Lofquist, 1967). Only limited support was found for major constructs associated with Holland's theory, although the study found several significant relationships between 3‐letter SDS‐R codes and desired role function as would be predicted by Holland's theory.     

Considering self‐interests and symbolism together: How instrumental and value‐expressive motives interact to influence supervisors’ justice behavior

Drawing upon functional theories of attitudes and the organizational justice literature, the current research suggests that people's attitudes toward justice likely serve an instrumental function (grounded in self‐interest, rewards maximization, and punishment minimization) as well as a value‐expressive function (grounded in the expression of self‐concept and values). Importantly, these two functions co‐exist and interact to influence supervisors’ justice behavior and the consistency of such behavior via supervisors’ justification for unjust behavior. Findings from a set of experimental and correlational studies confirmed these predictions. The positive effects of supervisors’ value‐expressive function on justice behavior and its consistency were stronger when their instrumental function was lower (vs. higher), and justification for unjust behavior mediated these effects. Also, supplementary analyses showed that the consistency of supervisors’ justice behavior positively predicted subordinates’ overall justice perceptions beyond the effects of the overall level of justice behavior. We conclude by discussing the theoretical and practical implications of these findings.     

The Influence of Holland's Vocational Interests on Work-Family Conflict: An Exploratory Analysis

Drawing on a sample of 438 working professionals from various organizations across the central United States, the authors investigated the relationship between Holland's (1959, 1997) RIASEC (Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional) model and employee perceptions of work-family conflict. Results revealed that the RIASEC model contributed unique variance in predicting work-family conflict beyond demographic characteristics and the Big Five personality constructs. The RIASEC interests were found to be associated with different dimensions of work-family conflict. These results signal that vocational interests may influence not only work-related attitudes and behaviors (e.g., job satisfaction, performance), but also one's ability to balance work and family demands.     

An extension of Holland's theory to its unnatural conclusion

Herein are recorded the events that led to the complete destruction of the United States in the late 1990's, beginning innocently enough in the 1960's with John Holland's Theory of Vocational Choice.     

Career counseling: beyond “test and tell”

Behavior-oriented inventories need not be used in a static manner. This article presents a way of using John Holland's Self-Directed Search (SDS) as an illustration of how such an inventory can be employed dynamically within a developmental career counseling framework. Use of the SDS is discussed in terms of environmental exploration, self-exploration, and integration of information. The breadth of individual behavior styles and the flexibility of work environments are the key concepts in the approach to career counseling described here.     

The Occupational,Learning, and Social Support Orientations of Employees

This study identifies indicators of possible job success by investigation of the relationship between work stability/satisfaction and occupational, learning, and social support orientations of rehabilitation personnel. A questionnaire that included Holland's Vocational Preference Inventory and Sheffield's Orientation of Adult Learners Scale was mailed to 338 employees in rehabilitation settings. The data analyses indicated that such employees have basically the occupational characteristics of social, artistic, and investigative profiles and that the environments of the rehabilitation facilities were basically social, artistic, and enterprising. Such a match promotes a stable and satisfying work situation based on Holland's theory. The occupational orientation of employees can also serve as an indicator of their learning orientation and preference and their social support orientations.     

The congruence problem in John Holland's theory of vocational decisions

John Holland's theory of vocational choice has been a dominant one in careers psychology for many years, especially in North America. A key construct in the theory is congruence between person and environment. Yet research has failed to find as strong a link as might be expected between congruence and outcomes such as satisfaction and performance. This could present a major challenge to the theory. Fourteen possible reasons for the weak associations between congruence and outcome measures are identified and discussed under three broad headings: the theory, the research and the world. It is concluded that the most important reasons are (1) that Holland's measures of people and environments partially neglect some important constructs; (2) that environments have not been conceptualized or measured entirely appropriately; and (3) the data that are used in the calculation of congruence indices are insufficiently precise or comprehensive. It is suggested that Holland's theory and associated measures should be developed further, and that the processual elements of it need more attention.