How Television News Viewers Deal with Facts that Contradict Their Beliefs: A Consistency and Attribution Analysis1

This study was conducted to investigate the effect of a counterattitudinal news story on the perceived credibility of a television newscaster. In the basic 2 × 2 design, subjects, who were either pro-student or pro-police, viewed a newscast in which either students or police were blamed for initiating a violent confrontation. The results indicated that subjects, for whom the newscast's conclusion was counterattitudinal (as compared to those for whom the conclusion was consistent with initial student-police attitudes), rated the newscast as less objective, rated the newscaster as less credible and more intending to persuade, and attributed to the newscast and newscaster more extreme political positions consistent with the newscast's conclusions The implications of these results for the problem of newscaster credibility are discussed, as are the connections between the present results and previous research on communicator credibility.     

Motivation,heuristics, and the psychology of prediction

The present study was designed to test whether or not the use of representativeness and causality heuristics in decision-making results from insufficient or nonvigilant information processing rather than from an inherent deficiency in human information-processing ability. It was hypothesized that subjects who were distracted while making predictions (field-dependent subjects who were continuously aware of other subjects' performance in the experimental session) would fail to use the base rate to a greater extent than would nondistracted subjects (field-dependent subjects who were not aware of the other subjects' performance, and field-independent subjects). As predicted, when other subjects' performance was public, field-independent subjects conformed more to the base rate than did field-dependent subjects. In the private condition, however, the opposite pattern emerged. The results were discussed in terms of the drive theory of social facilitation and non-vigilant information processing.We would like to thank Matthew R. Marler for his comments on an earlier draft of this paper.     

Tactile perceptual task and field dependence-independence

Differential performance with both hands by 60 normal field-dependent or field-independent subjects who were solving Nebes' test, was assessed. No difference was found between hands, but a significant difference was noted for speed of performance between field-dependent and field-independent subjects.     

When credibility attacks: The reverse impact of source credibility on persuasion

Recent research on the self-validation hypothesis suggests that source credibility identified after message processing can influence the confidence people have in their own thoughts generated in response to persuasive messages (Briñol, Petty, & Tormala, 2004). The present research explored the implications of this effect for the possibility that high credibility sources can be associated with more or less persuasion than low credibility sources. In two experiments, it is demonstrated that when people generate primarily positive thoughts in response to a message (e.g., because the message contains strong arguments) and then learn of the source, high source credibility leads to more favorable attitudes than does low source credibility. When people have primarily negative thoughts in response to a message (e.g., because it contains weak arguments), however, this effect is reversed—that is, high source credibility leads to less favorable attitudes than does low source credibility.     

On the Risks of Recycling Because of Guilt: An Examination of the Consequences of Introjection1

The present study sought to examine the influence of introjected beliefs on individuals’ vulnerability to counterattitudinal arguments. University students’ reasons for engaging in proenvironmental behaviors were assessed prior to their reading excerpts from a counterattitudinal article. The excerpts were written by a personally attractive or unattractive author and contained either weak or strong arguments against recycling. Our results show that individuals who were highly introjected about recycling (e.g., “I recycle because I would feel guilty if I didn't”) were influenced by the personal attractiveness of the source but not by the strength of the specific arguments. Specifically, a thought‐listing procedure revealed that introjection was associated with generating more favorable thoughts and fewer counterarguments about the anti‐recycling message when the author was personally attractive than when he was unattractive.     

认知风格影响框架效应的ERP研究

采用ERP方法,考察了不同认知风格被试在决策过程中的框架效应。分析的脑电成分为N200和P300成分。结果发现：场依存者的反应时显著高于场独立者;场依存者诱发的N200和P300平均波幅均显著低于场独立者;大脑右半球的N200和P300平均波幅均显著高于左半球。这些结果表明,场独立者在决策过程中更具有理性,基本不受决策问题表述方式的影响,且该决策过程主要发生在大脑的右半球。     

场依存性与独立性认知方式对视动错觉的影响

为探讨认知方式对视动性错觉的影响,对100名男性军校学员进行了棒框测验,15名高分者和15名低分者分别作为场依存组和场独立组。每名被试随机给予一系列视动阶跃刺激(5,10,15,20,30,40,60,80,100,120度/秒),每个刺激持续20秒。记录被试视动错觉出现的潜伏期和错觉模糊量。研究结果表明:1.场依存组被试的错觉潜伏期短于场独立组,它与刺激速度呈幂函数关系,而场独立组潜伏期随刺激速度的增加呈直线下降;2.在5—120度/秒的范围内,两组被试错觉量回归成两条直线,两直线回归系数无显著性差异,而截距差别十分显著。因此,场依存性/独立性认知方式是视动错觉个体差异性的一种重要影响因素,它对军事飞行员的心理学选拔和训练有着重要的意义。     

Recruitment sources and organizational attraction: A field study of Belgian nurses

Previous research on recruitment sources has mostly focused on posthire instead of prehire outcomes and has typically applied a very rudimentary classification of sources on the basis of the formal–informal distinction. The present study relied on a theory-driven taxonomy to identify four major types of recruitment sources (recruitment advertising, recruitment events, publicity, and word of mouth) and applied a source credibility perspective to predict differential relationships of these sources with organizational attractiveness. In a sample of 184 job-seeking nurses in Belgium, characterized by a high labour market demand, it was found that job seekers who spent more time on receiving employment information through experiential recruitment sources such as events and word of mouth perceived this information as more credible. In addition, job seekers' exposure to word of mouth was strongly positively related to their attraction to organizations as an employer. This relationship was partially mediated by the perceived credibility of the received employment information. Therefore, the results of this field study suggest that to enhance their attractiveness as an employer for job seekers, especially those in high demand on the labour market, recruiting organizations should provide credible employment information and stimulate the use of word of mouth as a recruitment source.     

Individual differences in aggressive responses to attack: Internal-external locus of control and field dependence-independence

Two experiments assessed the effect of individual differences on aggression. In both studies subjects were exposed to opponents in the competitive reaction time task who decreased the intensity of their attack from high to low, remained constantly moderate in their attack, or increased the intensity of their attack from low to high. In the first experiment Internal Locus of Control subjects consistently set high intensity shocks in response to high intensity attack and low shocks in response to mild attack. External subjects showed relatively minor variations in their aggressive responses to varying intensities of attack. In the second experiment field-independent subjects set more intense shocks than field-dependent subjects only in the Decreasing attack condition.     

The role of social categorization and perceived source credibility in minority influence

This study was conducted in order to compare the influence of ingroup and outgroup minorities and to assess the role of perceived source credibility in minority influence. The subjects were exposed to the simultaneous majority/minority influence paradigm. Ingroup minorities were more influential than outgroup minorities. Subjects moved toward the minority position in private and toward the majority position in public when the minority was represented by members of the ingroup. On private responses subjects were not affected by outgroup minorities who argued for abortion, and they became more positive toward abortion when outgroup minorities opposed abortion. Final &, ingroup minorities were perceived as more credible than outgroup minorities and greater credibility of minority source was associated with greater attitude change toward the minority position. The superior influence of ingroup minorities held when controlling for source credibility. Overall, the results were highly supportive of social identity theory.     

Field-dependence/independence: ability in relation to mobility-fixity

Previous authors have pointed out that, while the classic Rod-and-Frame Test (RFT) yields a measure of ability to perform field-independently, it is unsuitable for identifying stylistic preference, such as mobility-fixity within the field-dependence/independence dimension. To relate mobility-fixity and ability aspects of field-dependence/independence, we compared data obtained from two versions of the test: one with a "free" instruction, on which the subjects were invited to adjust the rod to any position(s) they preferred on each of 10 trials and a process-oriented version (RFT-P), involving 20 trials with the standard instruction but with a constant rod-and-frame configuration, making possible analysis of the process of adaptation. Mobility versus fixity was defined in terms of more or less frequent changes of rod positions and choice of a high or a low proportion of nongeometrical positions in the RFT-Free. 38 female and 23 male university students completed first the RFT-Free and thereafter the RFT-Process. Women were more field-dependent than men throughout the RFT-Process trials; there were no differences between the sexes over trials or in choice of positions in the RFT-Free. Compared with field-dependent subjects, field-independent subjects more often changed rod positions in the RFT-Free and preferred nongeometrical positions somewhat more. Among field-independent subjects, those with consistently low deviations in RFT-Process more often preferred a variety of nongeometrical positions in RFT-Free than did those with gradually increasing deviations. We conclude that field-independence is associated with mobility and field-dependence with fixity, as defined by the RFT-Free variables, and that a prerequisite for high mobility is a relative stability of field-independence as reflected on the RFT-Process. Theoretical implications of this conclusion are discussed.     

Assimilation and contrast in persuasion: the effects of source credibility in multiple message situations

The present research explores a contextual perspective on persuasion in multiple message situations. It is proposed that when people receive persuasive messages, the effects of those messages are influenced by other messages to which people recently have been exposed. In two experiments, participants received a target persuasive message from a moderately credible source. Immediately before this message, participants received another message, on a different topic, from a source with high or low credibility. In Experiment 1, participants' attitudes toward the target issue were more favorable after they had first been exposed to a different message from a low rather than high credibility source (contrast). In Experiment 2, this effect only emerged when a priming manipulation gave participants a dissimilarity mindset. When participants were primed with a similarity mindset, their attitudes toward the target issue were more favorable following a different message from a high rather than low credibility source (assimilation).     

MMPI correlates of extreme field independence and field dependence in a psychiatric population.

34 male and 34 female hospitalized psychiatric patients were divided into field-independent and field-dependent groups on the basis of rod-and-frame test performance and their MMPI scores were compared. A multiple discriminant analysis followed by a series of 2 X 2 factorial analyses of variance was used to assess the results. As in previous studies, more similarities than differences were found between the two cognitive styles. However, field-independent subjects tended to be more unconventional, aggressive, antisocial, and perhaps defensive than field-dependent subjects. Explanations of results were explored in reference to previous findings.     

大学生的认知风格与逻辑推理的关系

以大学生为被试,探讨认知风格与逻辑推理的关系。结果表明：（1）在三段论推理中,场依存型学生和场独立型学生推理成绩不存在显著差异,学过和未学过逻辑学的学生推理成绩也不存在显著差异,但男生和女生推理成绩差异显著,女生比男生更易受“气氛”的影响。（2）在命题推理中,对抽象材料构成的命题,场独立型学生和场依存型学生的推理存在显著差异,场独立型学生表现出更强的证伪倾向,场依存型学生表现出更强的换位倾向;对具体材料构成的命题,场独立型学生和场依存型学生的推理不存在显著差异。     

外显、内隐记忆中不同认知方式个体的社会定向

以中文双字词为实验材料,分别从两个层面探讨场依存个体与场独立个体对社会词或非社会词的记忆有无偏向。实验一采用双任务,分散注意学习条件,实验二引入加工分离程序(PDP)。研究结果表明:(1)在双任务分散注意学习条件下,场依存个体对非目标社会词存在记忆偏向。(2)在内隐记忆成绩上,场依存个体对社会词存在记忆偏向,场独立个体对非社会词存在记忆偏向。     

学生认知方式影响文章阅读理解的实验研究

以初二学生为被试 ,考察了不同认知方式学生对不同体裁文章以及对有无标记说明文的学习效果。结果表明,(1)不同认知方式学生对散文的学习无明显差异,对说明文的学习场独立学生要好于场依存者;(2)场独立者对有标记的说明文的学习效果要好于场依存者;对无标记说明文的学习,场独立与场依存者之间不存在明显差异。     

Field dependence-independence (FDI) cognitive style: an analysis of attentional functioning

Previous research has indicated that field-dependent children display poorer performance than field-independent children in almost all academic subjects and cognitive tasks. However, the processes underlying this poorer performance remain unclear. The present study aimed to assess whether children with different FDI cognitive styles show differences in performance of tasks measuring aspects of attentional functioning. Specifically, 149 children aged 8 - 11 years were classified according to FDI cognitive style (field-dependent, intermediate, or field-independent), and to storage capacity (Digits Forward Test), verbal working memory (Digits Backward Test), capacity to focus, shift, and maintain attention (Digit Symbol Test), and capacity for sustained attention (Visual Search and Attention Test). Field-independent children displayed better performance than intermediate and field-dependent children on all tests except the Digits Forward Test. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.     

Physiological arousal, dissonance, and attitude change: evidence for a dissonance-arousal link and a "don't remind me" effect

Two experiments replicated and extended research by Croyle and Cooper (1983) indicating that cognitive dissonance involves physiological arousal. In Experiment 1, subjects wrote counterattitudinal essays under conditions of high or low choice, and, to assess arousal effects owing to effort, with or without a list of arguments provided by the experimenter. In high-choice conditions only, and regardless of effort, subjects showed both arousal (heightened galvanic skin response) and attitude change. Arousal, however, did not decline following attitude change. The more effortful task (no arguments provided) produced increased arousal but not greater attitude change. In Experiment 2, the opportunity to change one's attitude following a freely chosen counterattitudinal essay was manipulated. As in Experiment 1, arousal increased following the essay but did not decline following a postessay attitude change opportunity. When subjects were not given an attitude change opportunity, however, arousal did decline. Thus, dissonance seems to create arousal, but attitude change sustains rather than reduces the arousal. It is suggested that if dissonance is a drive state, drive reduction typically may be accomplished through gradual cognitive change or forgetting.     

Psychological differentiation and the evaluation of juridic information: Cognitive and affective consequences

The cognitive and evaluative involvements of field dependence-independence in the processing of available information were examined in two experiments. In Experiment 1, ninety-six female undergraduates were assigned to field-dependent and field-independent conditions (via a median split on Embedded Figures Test scores). Half were given information about the trial of a man accused of attempted manslaughter that was suggestive of guilt; the other half received information suggestive of innocence. They were asked to indicate their confidence in the guilt or innocence of the defendant, and to recall arguments from the information they received. Field-dependent subjects were significantly more extreme in their confidence judgments, particularly in the exonerating conditions. They also showed nonsignificantly poorer recall. In Experiment 2, forty-eight subjects from Experiment 1 were given arguments biased in the opposite direction of their original sets. Field-dependent subjects were significantly more likely to shift their confidence judgments and report discomfort when the new information suggested innocence, and to underrecall new information when it suggested guilt. Field-dependent subjects again showed poorer recall. The results of both experiments were discussed in terms of their support for a field-dependence value bias and encoding deficiency.