Children's understanding of drivers' intentions

To become more skilled as pedestrians, children need to acquire a view of the traffic environment as one in which road users are active agents with different intentions and objectives. This paper describes a simulation study designed to explore children's understanding of drivers' intentions. It also investigated the effect of training children's sensitivity, through peer discussion and adult guidance, to the cues by which drivers signal their intentions. Results confirmed that children's ability to accurately predict drivers' intentions improves with age and that sensitizing children through training to the options for action available to drivers when signalling a manoeuvre improves their accuracy in predicting drivers' intentions. Training was also found to shift children's focus from contextual infrastructural features of the traffic environment (e.g. traffic signals, stop signs) by which to judge drivers' likely intentions to the explicit cues that drivers use to signal their imminent actions (e.g. slowing down, moving into the kerb). Training on the simulation was also shown to transfer to practical decision making at the roadside.     

A method to improve the hazard perception of young novice drivers based on Bandura’s observational learning theory: Supplement to expert commentary training

Compared with experienced drivers, young novice drivers are more likely to have traffic accidents. The main reasons are that they lack experience, their hazard perception is weak, and their visual search strategy is underdeveloped. Research shows that hazard perception training can improve the visual search strategy of young novice drivers and enhance their hazard perception ability. We propose that a driver's visual search behaviour, like any other action, can be developed by observing the behaviour of a role model. In an experiment based on a driving simulator, we clustered the visual search paths of 20 experienced drivers, selected the drivers with the best visual search behaviour, and obtained visual search path video footage to produce hazard perception training videos. Using these videos, we applied Bandura’s observation learning theory to train 20 young novice drivers. We call this approach “training based on experienced drivers' performance”. To determine the effects of training based on experienced drivers' performance, 20 young novice drivers were given the usual expert commentary training, and 20 young drivers were given no training. The results showed that training based on experienced drivers' performance and expert commentary training had positive effects on the average speed of young novice drivers through hazard sections. Compared with untrained young novice drivers, trained young novice drivers decreased their speed in response to dangerous road sections. Compared with young novice drivers who received expert commentary training and those who did not receive training, young novice drivers who received training based on experienced drivers' performance showed significant improvements in visual search. These results suggest that training based on experienced drivers' performance can help young novice drivers improve their hazard perception, especially in visual aspects. This training method can complement existing training methods for young novice drivers.     

Naturalistic studies of aggressive behavior: aggressive stimuli, victim visibility, and horn honking.

Three studies extended laboratory research on aggression to a naturalistic setting which involved horn honking from drivers as a measure of aggression; the studies were adapted from Doob and Gross. The results from a survey (Study 1) of 59 drivers suggested that they were frequently irritated by and aggressive toward other drivers. A second study (using a 3x2 factorial design with 92 male drivers) indicated that manipulations of a rifle in an aggressive context and victim visibility (dehumanization) both significantly influenced horn honking rates subsequent to obstruction at a signal light. A third study with 137 male drivers and 63 female drivers examined the interactive effects of a rifle, an aggressively connotated bumper sticker, and individual subject characteristics (sex and an exploratory index of self-perceived status) on horn honking. The results for three studies in naturalistic settings offer possible extensions of laboratory based findings on aggression. The role of inhibitions in modifying the pattern of results was also discussed.     

Impact of time pressure on acceleration behavior and crossing decision at the onset of yellow signal

This study investigates acceleration behavior and crossing decision of the drivers under increasing time pressure driving conditions. A typical urban route was designed in a fixed-base driving simulator consisting of four signalized intersections with varying time to stop line (4 s and 6 s) and maneuver type (right-turn and go-through). 97 participants’ data were obtained under No Time Pressure (NTP), Low Time Pressure (LTP), and High Time Pressure (HTP) driving conditions. The acceleration behavior was examined at the onset of yellow signal in four ways: continuous deceleration, acceleration-deceleration, deceleration-acceleration, and continuous acceleration. A random forest model was used to build an acceleration behavior prediction model for identifying the significant explanatory variables based on variable importance ranking. Further, a Mixed Effects Multinomial Logit (MEML) model was developed using the explanatory variables obtained from a random forest model. Additionally, a generalized linear mixed model was incorporated for estimating the likelihood of crossing an intersection by considering all the explanatory variables. A MEML model result revealed that the odds of adopting acceleration-deceleration, deceleration-acceleration, and continuous acceleration instead of continuous deceleration increased by 63 %, 123 %, and 77 %, respectively under HTP driving conditions. Moreover, the likelihood of crossing a signalized intersection increased by 2.73 times and 4.26 times when the drivers were under LTP and HTP driving conditions, respectively as compared to NTP driving condition. Apart from this, time to stop line (reference: 6 s) and age showed negative association with crossing probability. Overall, the findings from this study revealed that drivers altered their acceleration behavior for executing risky driving decisions under increasing time pressure driving conditions.     

Transparency in Structured Interviews: Consequences for Construct and Criterion-Related Validity

Although researchers agree on the use of structured interviews in personnel selection, past research has been undecided on whether these interviews need to be conducted nontransparently (i.e., without giving interviewees any indication of the evaluated criteria) or transparently (i.e., by revealing to interviewees the dimensions assessed in the interview). This article presents two independent studies examining the effects of interview transparency on interviewees' performance and on the interview's construct and criterion-related validity in the context of an application training program. Results from both Study 1 (N = 123) and Study 2 (N = 269) indicate an improvement in interviewees' performance under transparent interview conditions. Both studies further support the assumption that transparent interviews show satisfactory construct validity, whereas nontransparent interviews do not. Moreover, Study 2 showed no significant difference between the interview's criterion-related validity under transparent versus nontransparent conditions. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

When Accomplishments Come Back to Haunt You: The Negative Effect of Competence Signals on Women's Performance Evaluations

This research explores the possibility that the very accomplishments that are critical to success during the hiring process (e.g., educational attainment, promotion history) can lead to a drop in future performance evaluations for women. We theorized that evaluators may see such competence signals as a threat to the traditional gender hierarchy, which leads to a negative bias when evaluating women's on‐the‐job performance. In Study 1, we examined this hypothesis among commanding officers in the U.S. military, who gave lower performance ratings to female subordinates whose pay grade approached their own. The same was not true for male subordinates. Studies 2, 3a, and 3b experimentally tested the boundary conditions of this effect using two additional competence signals (educational attainment and past career successes) and 2 different populations. Across these studies, we replicated the negative relationship between competence signal strength and performance evaluations for female subordinates but only under conditions in which the evaluator would be particularly likely to experience gender hierarchy threat. Specifically, it emerged when the evaluator was male and high social‐dominance oriented and when the female subordinate's objective on‐the‐job performance was high. Finally, Study 3a demonstrated how organizations can mitigate this negative bias by using objective (rather than subjective) performance evaluations.     

Passion for Driving and Aggressive Driving Behavior: A Look at Their Relationship

The purpose of the present research was to investigate the relationship between passion for driving and aggressive driving behavior in 3 studies. Study 1 examined the association between passion and aggressive driving behavior in a sample of undergraduate students. Results showed that an obsessive passion for driving was associated with aggressive driving behavior, while harmonious passion was not. Study 2 replicated these results with an ecologically valid sample of community‐dwelling drivers. Finally, Study 3 replicated the results obtained in Studies 1 and 2 in a laboratory setting using a driving simulator under controlled frustrating driving situations with judges' assessment of aggressive driving behavior. Study 3 also showed that the emotion of anger mediated the obsessive‐passion/aggressive‐driving‐behavior relationship.     

A study of the compliance level of connected vehicle warning information in a fog warning system based on a driving simulation

The accidents in the freeway are frequent and more serious on foggy days. Connected vehicle (CV) technology as a new technology can inform drivers of fog conditions in advance so the drivers can adjust their driving behaviors through Human Machine Interface (HMI) and Dynamic Message Sign (DMS) in the fog warning system. The level of driver's compliance with a fog warning system is the key to assessing the effectiveness of the fog warning system. To evaluate the compliance level of fog warning system, the study established a CV system testing platform based on driving simulator, and analyzed the changes in driving behavior and influencing factors for drivers under three different visibility conditions (No fog, light fog and heavy fog) based on the platform, finally, comprehensive evaluation of the optimal fog warning system under different foggy conditions based on the compliance level were made. Research indicators are divided into three aspects: 1) the response degree, including the mean speed, the minimum speed in the fog zone, the difference of the speeds when entering and leaving the fog zone, the proportion of speed following, and the speed reduction proportion prompt; 2) the response start time, which is the time to start slowing down to the speed limit; and 3) the response time duration, namely, the time in which the speed limit is followed. The results show that the response degree of the driver to the fog warning system is high, the fog warning system can effectively reduce the driving speed of the drivers and improve the speed following proportion of the drivers, the deceleration ratio of the driver at each warning point is relatively high, and the influencing factors of various indicators are complex but are mostly related to visibility and technical level. Comprehensive evaluation results show that the warning mode of the combined HMI and DMS has the highest level of compliance under light fog conditions, and when fog concentration increases, compliance level of fog warning system with HMI only is higher than others. The study establishes a reference platform for CV system and provides methods and index system for the compliance level of CV research.     

Interaction strategies with advanced driver assistance systems

When using advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) drivers need to calibrate their level of trust and interaction strategy to changes in the driving context and possible consequent reduction of system reliability (e.g. in harsh weather conditions). By investigating and identifying categories of drivers who choose inadequate interaction strategies, it is possible to address unsafe usage with e.g. tutoring lessons tailored to the respective driver category. This paper presents two studies investigating categories of drivers who apply different interaction strategies when using ADAS. Study I was designed as an exploratory field study with 37 participants interacting with a SAE level 2 system. For the exploratory study, it was important to observe and understand the interaction strategies in a driving context which entails the real complexity of the driving task. The experimental set-up of study II (simulator study), however, allowed to clearly interpret the interaction strategies as either calibrated or un-calibrated by varying the situational risk. Participants (N = 33) were driving in a situation where the system was either working reliably (low-risk condition) or in a situation where the system displayed repeatedly errors under harsh weather conditions (high-risk condition). Cluster analyses with the variables trust, monitoring behavior towards the system and usage behavior were performed to analyze potential categories of drivers. Extreme driver categories with interaction strategies indicative for both misuse and disuse were observed in both studies. In study I, drivers were categorized as either highly trusting attentive, moderately trusting attentive, moderately inattentive, inattentive or skeptical. In study II, drivers were categorized as either un-calibrated, calibrated, inconsistent or skeptical. Taken together, results underline the need of tutoring systems that are tailored for different driver categories.     

Exploring the benefits of conversing with a digital voice assistant during automated driving: A parametric duration model of takeover time

Vehicle automation allows drivers to disengage from driving causing a potential decline in their alertness. One of the major challenges of highly automated vehicles is to ensure a timely (with respect to safety and situation awareness) takeover in such conditions. For this purpose, the current study investigated the role of an in-vehicle digital voice-assistant (VA) in conditionally automated vehicles, offering spoken discourse relating specifically to contextual factors, such as the traffic situation and road environment. The study involved twenty-four participants, each taking two drives (counterbalanced): with VA and without VA, in a driving simulator. Participants were required to takeover vehicle control following the issuance of a takeover request (TOR) near the end of each drive. A parametric duration model was adopted to find the key factors determining takeover time (TOT). Paired comparisons showed higher alertness and higher active workload (mean NASA-TLX rating) during automation when accompanied by the VA. Paired t-test comparison of gaze behavior prior to takeover showed significantly higher instances of checking traffic signal, roadside objects, and the roadway during the drive with VA, indicating higher situation awareness. The parametric model indicated that the VA increased the likelihood of making a timely takeover by 39%. There was also some evidence suggesting that male drivers are likely to resume control 1.21 times earlier than female drivers. The study findings highlight the benefits of adopting a digital voice assistant to keep the drivers alert and aware about the recent traffic environment in partially automated vehicles.     

CHANGES IN STUDENT AND TEACHER RESPONSES IN OBSERVED AND GENERALIZED SETTINGS AS A FUNCTION OF SUPERVISOR OBSERVATIONS

Two studies are reported in which the effects of supervisor observations of teachers' performance rate and accuracy on both teachers' and severely handicapped students' behaviors were compared with baseline supervisor observations that did not specify rate and accuracy feedback. The latter observation procedure (nonspecific feedback) was more typical of the existing practices of school supervisors. The dependent variables for the teachers were rate and accuracy of teacher behaviors to student responses in individualized instructional settings involving discrete trials or task-analysis steps. The dependent variables for students were the rates of correct and incorrect responding to teacher presentations during the supervisor observation periods. Both studies used a multiple baseline design. The results of Study 1 showed that there were educationally significant changes in teacher and, in turn, student performance as a result of the use of the rate and accuracy procedure. The results of Study 2 replicated those of Study 1 while correcting limitations of Study 1. This latter study also demonstrated that the observation effects of the procedure generalized to teacher performance throughout the day. The results are discussed in terms of the efficiency and cost effectiveness of the procedure to train, monitor, and reinforce teacher effectiveness.     

Strategic changes in task performance in simulated car driving as an adaptive response to task demands

Car drivers appear to reduce their driving speed in high task demand situations. Summala's [Safety Sci. 22 (1996) 103–117]; [in: J.A. Rothengatter, & E. Carbonell Vaya (Eds.), Traffic and Transport Psychology: Theory and Application, Pergamon, Oxford, 1997, pp. 41–52] model of behavioural adaptation (MBA) also assumes that drivers increase speed in low task demand situations or attend to additional tasks more. The present study investigated the relation between driving speed and task demands in simulated driving. Participants were observed under three speed conditions, driving fast, driving as if taking a driving test, and following a fast-driving car. The same route was driven twice under each of these speed conditions: once with and once without the concurrent performance of an auditory short-term memory task. All other things being equal, driving fast required more effort than driving more slowly, which was not compensated for by better memory performance. This refutes one assumption of the MBA. When following a fast-driving car, participants invested less effort than when driving fast. As auditory route guidance messages were embedded within the memory task, participants were forced to attend the memory task in all rides of the Fast and Accurate conditions, but not in the Car Following conditions. This can also explain why the memory task had no effect on cognitive effort. It is concluded that car drivers prioritise their task goals.     

卡车驾驶员速度估计研究

用速度知觉测试仪,对251名男性卡车驾驶员在四种实验条件下的速度估计准确性进行了测量。结果发现：安全组卡车驾驶员的速度估计准确性优于事故组卡车驾驶员,两者在低速条件下差异不显著,高速条件下差异显著;事故组卡车驾驶员的高估次数高于安全组卡车驾驶员,低速条件下两者不显著.高速条件下差异显著;事故多发组与安全组卡车驾驶员的速度估计准确性在高速及低速长距离条件下差异显著;速度及距离对速度估计准确性有显著影响,且两者之间存在显著的交互作用;年龄对速度估计准确性无显著影响。     

Understanding the impact of mortality-related health-risk information: a terror management theory perspective

Four studies explored the effects of providing mortality-related health-risk information from a terror management theory perspective. Study 1 (N = 48) revealed that exposure to information about the mortality-related risks of driving made mortality salient for young male drivers. Studies 2 (N = 60) and 3 (N = 139) demonstrated that young male drivers who perceived driving (fast) to be beneficial for self-esteem reported higher intentions to take driving risks (Study 2) and drive fast (Study 3) after exposure to such information compared to controls. Study 3 further demonstrated that the inclusion of a prime to behave responsibly eliminated this effect. Study 4 (N = 92) revealed that exposure to this prime alongside the mortality-related information generated increased accessibility of responsibility-related constructs and reduced accessibility of mortality-related constructs among young male drivers. The implications of these findings for terror management theory are discussed.     

On the meaningfulness of existence: When life salience boosts adherence to worldviews

We investigated when and how life salience boosts adherence to worldviews. It was hypothesized that, similar to thoughts of mortality, thoughts about a meaningful existence increase adherence to worldviews. Study 1a, 1b, and 1c yielded support for the symmetric effects of life and mortality salience on existential thoughts and worldview adherence. Furthermore, study 2 showed that contemplating life's meaningfulness (versus meaninglessness) increased adherence to worldviews. Study 3 showed increased worldview adherence when contemplating life's meaningfulness (versus meaninglessness), and provided additional evidence that the effect on worldview adherence was mediated by the appraisals of life's meaningfulness. Finally, study 4 suggests that both reflecting on life and mortality leads to more worldview adherence under conditions of meaningful life appraisals. The findings are discussed with respect to research in existential psychology. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Attributions and organizational conflict: The mediating role of apparent sincerity

When individuals behave in a provocative, conflict-inducing manner, they often attribute such actions to external causes (e.g., “I'm only following orders”). It was hypothesized that when such statements are perceived as accurate (sincere), they will mitigate negative reactions and reduce subsequent conflict. However, when they are viewed as inaccurate (insincere), opposite effects will result. It was also hyothesized that the impact of such attributional sincerity is greater in the context of high than low pressure to reach an agreement. In Study 1, male and female subjects negotiated with an accomplice who behaved in a conflict-inducing manner and who attributed such actions, either accurately or falsely, to external causes. These negotiations occurred under either high or low pressure to reach an agreement. Results offered support for both hypotheses. Under high but not low pressure to reach agreement, subjects rated the accomplice as less honest and reported stronger preferences for handing future conflicts with him in nonconciliatory ways (e.g., through avoidance or competition) when this person's attributional statements appeared to be false than when they appeared to be accurate. Surprisingly, however, subjects actually made more and larger concessions to an attributionally insincere than attributionally sincere opponent under both pressure conditions. In Study 2, officers of an urban fire department reported on how they would react to conflict with another member of their department under conditions where this person's provocative behavior stemmed from various causes. Results agreed closely with those of the laboratory study. Subjects reported the most negative reactions under conditions where their opponent falsely attributed his conflict-inducing actions to external causes.     

Self‐Presentational Effects in the Implicit Association Test

Two studies rely on Schlenker and Leary 's (1982) conceptual framework to investigate self‐presentational biases in the Implicit Association Test (IAT). Study 1 shows that under specific conditions, the IAT is indeed sensitive to self‐presentation, especially for high self‐monitors. Study 2 suggests that participants can fake the IAT to appear in a favorable light. Possible process mechanisms are discussed and directions are provided for future research in consumer psychology.     

Avoiding affect in intergroup relations: The roles of dispositional and intergroup empathy in the relationship between alexithymia and prejudice

Alexithymia, that is, difficulties in recognizing, communicating, and processing one's own emotions, is associated with poorer interpersonal relations. Emotional processes are key drivers and mechanisms of prejudice and its reduction, and alexithymia is thought to influence individuals' empathic responses. This research examined the relationship between alexithymia and prejudice, and the role of empathy in this relationship. Three studies were conducted in three intergroup contexts to test whether alexithymia is also associated with poorer intergroup relations with lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender+ individuals (Study 1, N = 126 heterosexual late adolescents) and Asian British people (Study 3, N = 300 White adults) in the United Kingdom, and immigrants in Italy (Study 2, N = 381 Italian adults). Participants completed the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20), measures on dispositional and intergroup empathic concern (EC) and perspective taking (PT) as well as measures of prejudice (anti-outgroup hostility, anti-outgroup attitudes, and anti-outgroup behavioral intentions). Lower dispositional EC (Studies 1, marginal effect in Study 2) and intergroup EC and PT (Study 3) mediated the relationship between the Externally Oriented Thinking subscale of the TAS-20 (i.e., avoiding emotions and affective thinking) and greater prejudice. The findings are important for understanding the challenges of late adolescents and adults with alexithymia in intergroup relations, highlighting the role of dispositional and intergroup empathy for individual differences such as alexithymia in endorsing prejudice.     

The safety performance of connected vehicles on slippery horizontal curves through enhancing truck drivers’ situational awareness: A driving simulator experiment

Although drivers can adequately adjust their operating speed according to the road curvature, they show a lack of recognition regarding the pavement friction conditions. In this regard, inappropriate speed selection on Horizontal Curves (HCs) with reduced surface friction can lead to a remarkable rate of run-off-road, sideswipe, head-on, and rollover crashes, especially on rural highways. Aligned with the Connected Vehicle (CV) Pilot Program on Interstate-80 in Wyoming, this study scrutinizes how CV advisory/warning messages can enhance traffic safety on slippery HCs. To this aim, a roadway consists of two HCs with regular and slippery pavement conditions was designed in a high-fidelity driving simulator experiment. A total of 24 professional truck drivers were recruited to drive the simulated roadway under CV and non-CV environments. In the CV scenario, drivers were informed about the pavement conditions and the advisory speeds before entering HCs. In contrast, no messages were given to non-CV drivers. Truck drivers' behaviors in both scenarios were quantified using four Kinematic-based Surrogate Measures of Safety (K-SMoS), including deviation from the pathway, instantaneous acceleration, lateral speed, and steering angle. CVs’ trajectories were statistically compared to non-CVs in terms of the central tendency and dispersion using the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test (WSRT) and Median Absolute Deviation (MAD), respectively. The results of WSRT depicted, under the effect of CV advisory/warning messages and throughout the slippery HC, the central tendency of four K-SMoS could be shifted toward zero by 23% up to 99%. This shifting is associated with a significant safety enhancement that potentially can reduce the likelihood of curve-related crashes on slippery HCs. It was revealed that the variation in drivers’ behavior on the slippery HC could be minimized in the CV environment, where 54% up to 95% reduction in the dispersions of four K-SMoS were observed, leading to more certainty in drivers’ behavior.