延迟学习判断的效应机制

研究考察了延迟学习判断的记忆假说和元记忆假说。实验一通过插入预测试的方法, 消除即时学习判断与延迟学习判断在记忆方面的差异, 结果发现, 延迟学习判断的准确性显著高于插入预测试的即时学习判断的准确性, 说明延迟学习判断的确提高了元记忆水平; 实验二采用PRAM实验程序, 对元记忆假说的机制进行探讨, 结果发现, 加入干扰任务的即时学习判断排除短时记忆的程度远远低于延迟学习判断干扰, 说明学习判断的准确性与短时记忆干扰的排除程度有关, 短时记忆干扰越强, 学习判断的准确性 越低。     

Subjects' inferential performance and the interaction of data and hypotheses in probabilistic inference tasks

In a recent paper, Knez (1991) showed an interaction of data and hypotheses in probabilistic inference tasks. The results illustrated two, earlier not obtained, significant main effects on subjects' hypothesis sampling , viz. the effect of different forms of data presentation and subjects' execution of cognitive control over their hypothesis pool throughout the series of trials. The present paper followed up these results in that the subjects' hypothesis testing , in Knez (1991) was subjected to an analysis. Hence, to see if the effects mentioned above significantly influenced the subjects' hypothesis testing, as they did for subjects' hypothesis sampling. The results showed a consistency with Knez (1991), i.e. the results emphasize the interaction of data and hypothesis in probabilistic inference tasks, as well as the subjects' execution of cognitive control over their hypothesis pool concerning both the subjects' hypothesis sampling and testing.     

There Is No Motive to Avoid Success: The Compromise Explanation for Success-Avoiding Behavior

ABSTRACT There are two traditional explanations for success-avoiding behavior the motive hypothesis and the cognition hypothesis A third hypothesis, compromise, is proposed m this article and explains success avoidance as a compromise between achievement and other goals A review shows that data explained by the motive hypothesis can be explained more parsimoniously by the compromise hypothesis, that some data are weakly inconsistent with the motive hypothesis, and that there is supportive evidence for the cognition and compromise hypotheses The implications of the compromise hypothesis for motivation research in general are discussed in terms of a control theory framework Compromises may be a common feature of intentional behavior     

Satisficing in hypothesis generation

Research in hypothesis generation suggests that people might act as satisficers and be less likely to generate plausible alternative hypotheses when they already have a hypothesis that accounts for the data in hand. Three experiments simulated scientific hypothesis development. In all 3, participants who had been given a hypothesis consistent with available data generated proportionally fewer of the simplest alternative hypotheses than participants given no such satisficing hypothesis. Furthermore, participant satisficing occurred regardless of whether the provided hypothesis was generated a priori or post hoc and despite high incentives for completeness. Limitations and implications of these findings are discussed for hypothesis development and the practice of taking post hoc hypotheses suggested by one's results and presenting them as a priori hypotheses.     

Accepting the null hypothesis

This article concerns acceptance of the null hypothesis that one variable has no effect on another. Despite frequent opinions to the contrary, this null hypothesis can be correct in some situations. Appropriate criteria for accepting the null hypothesis are (1) that the null hypothesis is possible; (2) that the results are consistent with the null hypothesis; and (3) that the experiment was a good effort to find an effect. These criteria are consistent with the meta-rules for psychology. The good-effort criterion is subjective, which is somewhat undesirable, but the alternative—never accepting the null hypothesis—is neither desirable nor practical.     

In Defense of the Play-Creativity Hypothesis

The hypothesis that pretend play facilitates the creative thought process in children has received a great deal of attention. In a literature review, Lillard et al. (2013, p. 8) concluded that the evidence for this hypothesis was “not convincing.” This article focuses on experimental and training studies that have tested this hypothesis. As categorized by Lillard et al., the majority of these studies failed to find evidence for the hypothesis. Furthermore, they contend that several of the studies that found evidence for the hypothesis were flawed either methodologically or statistically. This review of the evidence relative to this hypothesis included a larger number of studies, and, more important, screened studies for statistical power. The conclusion reached is that that the hypothesis is likely true. Additionally, it is shown that Lillard et al.’s criticisms of the studies that found evidence for the hypothesis do not stand up on close examination     

The effect of repeated presentation of items on paired associate learning

An experimental design is outlined which allows the probability of an item being learned to be related to the number of presentations of that item. The results of an experiment of this design are considered in relation to the hypothesis that learning is a single trial occurrence. The results are found to support neither the single trial hypothesis nor the incremental hypothesis. A “dual factor” hypothesis is put forward and considered in relation to these and other experimental findings. The scoring procedures employed allow consideration of the response learning and the associative phases of paired associate learning. It is suggested that the response learning phase may be explained by the single trial hypothesis and the associative phase by the dual factor hypothesis.     

HOW TO UNDERSTAND THE EXTENDED MIND

Given how epistemologists conceive of understanding, to what degree do we understand the hypothesis of extended mind? If the extended mind debate is a substantive dispute, then we have only superficial understanding of the extended mind hypothesis. And if we have deep understanding of the extended mind hypothesis, then the debate over this hypothesis is nothing but a verbal dispute.     

The questions lay interviewers ask

Two studies were conducted to determine the kinds of questions people formulate for testing a hypothesis about another's personality. One group of subjects tested the hypothesis that the interviewee was an extrovert; another group tested the hypothesis that the interviewee was an introvert. Still another group was not provided with a hypothesis; instead, this group was asked to discriminate between an extroverted and an introverted interviewee. All subjects were free to formulate any kind of questions they wished. Analysis of the content of the questions performed by independent judges revealed that the great majority of the questions formulated by all of the groups either presented a choice between extroverted and introverted features or were open-ended. The percentage of questions about features that were consistent with the hypothesis was not significantly greater than the percentage of questions about features that were inconsistent with the hypothesis. Furthermore, in all of the groups there were virtually no biased questions–questions that already assume that the hypothesis is true. Finally, the questions asked by subjects who entertained either the extrovert hypothesis or the introvert hypothesis were as diagnostic (as rated by independent judges) as were the questions asked by subjects whose task was to discriminate between extroverts and introverts. The results were shown to be consistent with the diagnosing strategy but not with the confirmatory strategy of information-gathering.     

关于假设检验的争议:问题的澄清与解决

对传统的假设检验作为心理学实验的数据分析工具的评价涉及两个标准:首先是它是否合法,其次是它是否有用。置于频率学派统计学框架中的传统假设检验在逻辑上实际上是合法的;但它在效用性方面则有着备择假设不可证伪以及只能提供定性结论这两方面的缺陷。置信区间能够集中地改进和弥补这些缺陷。对传统假设检验使用中错误的澄清也使得研究者们开始重视PSI问题,这使得心理学实验的设计和数据分析从关注总体转向关注个体。     

heroin injection among addicted felons: testing extant theories

Five causal explanations for heroin injection among addicted felons are summarized from extant literature: stratification hypothesis, market forces hypothesis, social network hypothesis, risk-taking syndrome hypothesis, and career intensification hypothesis. These theories were tested on a sample of 366 heroin-addicted felons from Brooklyn. Variables derived from these hypotheses correctly predicted 76 percent of the cases. The hypotheses with the strongest empirical support were the social network and risk-taking syndrome. According to the social network hypothesis, age, gender, and ethnic groups developed their own heroin subcultures that influence injecting behavior. In the risk-taking hypothesis, users who engaged in other non-drug reckless behaviors were at a higher risk of injecting heroin. The availability (street price) of heroin surfaced as the strongest correlate of heroin injection as more users self-identified as injectors during periods of lower availability. Age and longevity of heroin use were found to negatively correlate with injection. Policy implications derived from these findings are discussed.     

Happiness, Income, and Beyond

This commentary to Carol Graham’s paper deals with the nature of the relationship between income and happiness. Carol Graham focuses her contribution on what I call the positive-coefficient hypothesis in economic theory; which states that, on average, well-being rises with income. The hypothesis was first questioned by Richard Easterlin’s pioneering work and it has captured a lot of attention from happiness researchers during the last decade. My contribution deals with a related hypothesis, which I call the close-relationship hypothesis in economic theory. The hypothesis states that a person’s income is a good predictor of his or her well-being. I show that this hypothesis is rejected by happiness research, and I discuss the implications of this rejection.     

Five studies testing two new egoistic alternatives to the empathy-altruism hypothesis

The empathy-altruism hypothesis claims that prosocial motivation associated with feeling empathy for a person in need is directed toward the ultimate goal of benefiting that person, not toward some subtle form of self-benefit. We explored two new egoistic alternatives to this hypothesis. The empathy-specific reward hypothesis proposes that the prosocial motivation associated with empathy is directed toward the goal of obtaining social or self-rewards (i.e., praise, honor, and pride). The empathy-specific punishment hypothesis proposes that this motivation is directed toward the goal of avoiding social or self-punishments (i.e., censure, guilt, and shame). Study 1 provided an initial test of the empathy-specific reward hypothesis. Studies 2 through 4 used three procedures to test the empathy-specific punishment hypothesis. In Study 5, a Stroop procedure was used to assess the role of reward-relevant, punishment-relevant, and victim-relevant cognitions in mediating the empathy-helping relationship. Results of these five studies did not support either the empathy-specific reward or the empathy-specific punishment hypothesis. Instead, results of each supported the empathy-altruism hypothesis. Evidence that empathic emotion evokes altruistic motivation continues to mount.     

A model of memory in concept learning

A concept learning model was developed and tested in two conjunctive attribute identification tasks. The model includes assumptions about the focus of attention, decision making, and memory for stimulus information and prior decisions. Predictions are made about how S changes his hypothesis following an error. Procedures in both tasks allowed inference of the subject's current hypothesis. The hypothesis selections and error statistics were in the majority of cases accurately predicted by the model. Deviations from predictions on hypothesis sampling occurred for naive Ss but not for trained Ss who were required to state a hypothesis on each trial.     

Understanding suicide terrorism: Premature dismissal of the religious-belief hypothesis

We comment on work by Ginges, Hansen, and Norenzayan (2009), in which they compare two hypotheses for predicting individual support for suicide terrorism: the religious-belief hypothesis and the coalitional-commitment hypothesis. Although we appreciate the evidence provided in support of the coalitional-commitment hypothesis, we argue that their method of testing the religious-belief hypothesis is conceptually flawed, thus calling into question their conclusion that the religious-belief hypothesis has been disconfirmed. In addition to critiquing the methodology implemented by Ginges et al., we provide suggestions on how the religious-belief hypothesis may be properly tested. It is possible that the premature and unwarranted conclusions reached by Ginges et al. may deter researchers from examining the effect of specific religious beliefs on support for terrorism, and we hope that our comments can mitigate this possibility.     

Effectiveness of Positive Hypothesis Testing in Inductive and Deductive Rule Learning

In a positive hypothesis test a person generates or examines evidence that is expected to have the property of interest if the hypothesis is correct, whereas in a negative hypothesis test a person generates or examines evidence that is not expected to have the property of interest if the hypothesis is correct. Two experiments assessed the effectiveness of positive versus negative hypothesis tests on inductive and deductive rule learning problems. In Experiment 1 problem solvers induced a rule by proposing hypotheses and selecting evidence in the eight conditions of a factorial design defined by instructions to use a positive or negative hypothesis test on each of trials 1-5, 6-10, and 11-15. Instructions to use positive tests resulted in more examples, fewer strategic hypotheses, and a higher weighted score for five types of hypotheses than instructions to use negative tests. In Experiment 2 problem solvers identified 1 of a possible 1296 correct rules in the deductive rule learning game Mastermind. When problems were classified in the 16 possible combinations of positive or negative hypothesis tests on trials 2, 3, 4, and 5 there were fewer trials to solution for positive tests on each of the four trials and fewer trials to solution with increasing positive tests. We conclude that positive hypothesis tests are generally more effective than negative hypothesis tests in both inductive and deductive rule learning. Copyright 1999 Academic Press.     

双语存贮模型的研究

关于双语的存贮,一直存在着单独存贮说与共同存贮说之争。本文经理论分析和实证研究,认为：双语,是共同存贮,而不是单独存贮;并提出双语的新共同存贮模型。     

大学生的认知风格与逻辑推理的关系

以大学生为被试,探讨认知风格与逻辑推理的关系。结果表明：（1）在三段论推理中,场依存型学生和场独立型学生推理成绩不存在显著差异,学过和未学过逻辑学的学生推理成绩也不存在显著差异,但男生和女生推理成绩差异显著,女生比男生更易受“气氛”的影响。（2）在命题推理中,对抽象材料构成的命题,场独立型学生和场依存型学生的推理存在显著差异,场独立型学生表现出更强的证伪倾向,场依存型学生表现出更强的换位倾向;对具体材料构成的命题,场独立型学生和场依存型学生的推理不存在显著差异。     

Relationship Between Counselors' Clinical Hypotheses and Client Ratings of Counselor Effectiveness

The authors assessed the relationship of counseling students' hypothesis formation skill levels to counseling effectiveness. Hypothesis rating scales were selected to assess skill in using a comprehensive range of client data, integrating multiple client dimensions, and forming questions for hypothesis testing. Results indicated that higher ratings of hypothesis formation skill were associated with higher client ratings of counselor effectiveness. A combination of four hypothesis skill ratings predicted more than 60% of the variance in total Counselor Rating Form-Short version (CRF-S) scores, and one or more hypothesis formation skills were predictive of each CRF-S subscale score.     

自闭症谱系障碍者的视运动知觉

视运动知觉是人脑对外界物体的运动特性的知觉。视运动知觉异常是自闭症谱系障碍者的一种常见表现, 其检测光流、二阶运动、协同性运动、生物运动及运动速度的能力异于健康控制组, 且过度迷恋重复性运动物体。该群体视运动知觉异常的原因探析集中于背侧/M细胞通路特定假设、复杂性假设、神经噪声假设、经验缺失假设、时空加工异常假设、极端男性脑理论和社会脑假设。但到目前为止, 尚缺乏一个统一准确的、可验证的解释。未来研究应注重考察自闭症者视运动知觉异常的个体差异和神经生理机制, 进一步整合和验证解释理论, 并着眼开发有效的视运动知觉测评工具和干预策略