Developmental theories of parental contributors to antisocial behavior

In view of the increased interest in a developmental approach to psychopathology, and mounting evidence of the importance of parent-child interactions in the etiology of early antisocial behavior, the following questions were posed for this review. What theories of parent-child relationships and family management techniques are available? How developmental are they, how specific and transactional are they relative to parent and child behaviors involved? And how well do they cover the period in which antisocial behavior develops? Six theories have some developmental features but the attachment theories (by L. A. Sroufe, B. Egeland, and M. T. Greenberg) and two social learning theories (by G. R. Patterson and J. Martin) are most clearly developmental. They postulate reciprocal interactions of parent and child, and transformations in the form of normative changes in the child or changes in family processes. The social learning theories of Patterson and Martin are most specific, microanalytic in fact, as to the interaction processes involved, and the attachment theories at least specify kinds of behavior involved and also do not rely on traits or types of influence as their units of analysis. Conceptualization is most weak and overly general between late infancy and the preschool years. This gap makes it difficult to link attachment and social learning theories, both of which have driven a large number of studies. A bridging theory is offered to link the two sets of theories in the critical period involved.     

Early adolescent empathy, parental support, and antisocial behavior

In this two-wave prospective study, the authors investigated whether level of dispositional affective empathy moderated the association between parental support and antisocial behavior in early adolescents. The sample consisted of 823 Dutch boys and girls (mean age = 12.8 years) enrolled in the first year of secondary education. Higher levels of affective empathy were associated with less delinquent and aggressive behavior. Contrary to expectations, structural equation modeling did not indicate that youth with higher levels of affective empathy were susceptible to parental support. Further analyses showed that gender moderated the association between parental support and future delinquent and aggressive behavior. Only for girls, were high levels of parental support associated with lower levels of antisocial behavior.     

The effect of child negative affect on maternal discipline behavior

The effect of children's negative affect on maternal discipline behavior was evaluated in a sample of 39 children (19 to 41 months old) and their mothers. Mothers were randomly assigned to view a videotape that contained either a high level of child negative affect (NA) or no negative affect (NNA). After viewing the videotape, mothers were observed interacting with their own children in three tasks designed to elicit child misbehavior. Mothers in the NA condition displayed significantly greater overreactivity to child misbehavior; no significant difference in laxness was observed between the two groups of mothers. Children of mothers in the NA condition tended to display more misbehavior during the last two tasks of the interaction. Maternal negative affect received mixed support as one possible mediator of this effect.These data were presented at the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy in Atlanta, Georgia in November 1993.     

A gender-linked exploratory factor analysis of antisocial behavior in young adolescents

One hundred sixty-three young adolescents (72 males, 91 females) were administered a 23-item self-report inventory measuring antisocial behaviors. Results were analyzed separately for males and females. Exploratory factor analysis showed antisocial behavior to be multidimensional and to have different factor structures for males and females. The three factors accounting for more than two-thirds of the variance in antisocial behavior are discussed in terms of specialization in drug/alcohol use and violence.     

The utility of differentiating between mixed and pure forms of antisocial child behavior

This study examined the utility of classifying boys on the basis of a typology of antisocial behavior. A group of 195 boys, aged 10–17, was divided into four mutually exclusive groups based on their pattern of antisocial behavior. Stealing and fighting were chosen as criteria to define the four groups: (a) boys who fought but did not steal (Exclusive Fighter Group), (b) boys who stole but did not fight (Exclusive Theft Group), (c) boys who stole and fought (Versatile Antisocial Group), and (d) boys who did neither (Remaining Group). A multimethod-multirespondent study of these boys showed that (a) the Exclusive Fighter Group tended to score high on a range of overt antisocial behaviors and were relatively little involved in delinquency; (b) the Exclusive Theft Group tended to score high on some overt antisocial behaviors and were much involved in delinquency; (c) Versatile Antisocial youths scored highest among all groups on almost all overt and covert antisocial behaviors, and in terms of delinquent acts. The Versatile boys came from families with the most disturbed child-earing practices.The authors are indebted to Gerald Patterson for his inspiration and encouragement through-out the study. They acknowledge the most helpful comments they have received during earlier drafts of this paper from Drs. John Reid, Magda Stouthamer-Loeber, and Mark Weinrott.The paper was presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Denver, Colorado, November 10, 1983. The study has been funded by the Center for Studies in Crime and Delinquency, National Institute of Mental Health, Grants MH 32857 and MH 37940.     

A developmental perspective on antisocial behavior

A developmental model of antisocial behavior is outlined. Recent findings are reviewed that concern the etiology and course of antisocial behavior from early childhood through adolescence. Evidence is presented in support of the hypothesis that the route to chronic delinquency is marked by a reliable developmental sequence of experiences. As a first step, ineffective parenting practices are viewed as determinants for childhood conduct disorders. The general model also takes into account the contextual variables that influence the family interaction process. As a second step, the conduct-disordered behaviors lead to academic failure and peer rejection. These dual failures lead, in turn, to increased risk for depressed mood and involvement in a deviant peer group. This third step usually occurs during later childhood and early adolescence. It is assumed that children following this developmental sequence are at high risk for engaging in chronic delinquent behavior. Finally, implications for prevention and intervention are discussed.     

MAOA and male antisocial behavior: A review

Of all the risk factors for the development of antisocial behavior, “maleness” is by far the most robust predictor. Among the numerous biological factors that have been identified as increasing risk for antisocial behavior, one of the most well-supported has inexplicably received very little attention with regard to implications for explaining why maleness is such a robust predictor. That factor is the low activity form of the monoamine oxidase-A gene. A major reason for this inattention to the MAOA-L gene appears to be the failure to appreciate that its location on the X chromosome reflects the enormous biological disadvantage of the male compared to the female. This article, after presenting a brief overview of the research which establishes that MAOA-L is one of the most well-supported biological risk factors for antisocial behaviors, explained how the enormous male biological disadvantage related to the sex difference in the prevalence of MAOA-L and thus helped explain why maleness is the most robust predictor of antisocial behavior.     

A multilevel analysis of the interpersonal behavior of socially anxious people

We investigate the interpersonal behavior of socially anxious (SA) and non-socially anxious (NSA) individuals at three different levels of analysis, focusing on the dimensions of warmth and dominance. Study 1 examines self-reported general interaction styles, Study 2 explores behavior occurring within the context of a single interaction, and in Study 3 we focus on the performance of a single conversational act (a disagreement). Studies 1 and 2 adopt the framework of Interpersonal Circumplex Theory (IPC; Kiesler, 1983), which is well suited for studying trait-level and interaction-level social behaviors, while Study 3 is grounded in Politeness Theory (PT; Brown & Levinson, 1987), which can be used to analyze individual acts at the microstructural level. The potential mutual relevance of PT and IPC is also discussed.     

Empathy: A factor in antisocial behavior

Empathy has been accepted as a crucial factor in the development of prosocial thought and behavior. This study attempted to clarify the role of empathy in the development of antisocial and aggressive delinquent behavior. The subjects were 331 delinquents and 64 nondelinquent controls ages 12 to 18. The delinquents were found to be significantly delayed or arrested in the development of empathy. The nondelinquent group exhibited a significant age-related increase in empathy during the adolescent period, whereas the delinquent group did not. Of three delinquent subgroups utilized, the neurotics were least empathic, the psychopathics next, and the subculturals the most empathic; the groups differed significantly from each other. Aggressive delinquents were significantly lower in empathy level than nonaggressive delinquents, though differentiation by type of aggression (person or property) was not significant.This research was based on the author's doctoral dissertation. The author wishes to express his appreciation to Dr. Henry R. Angelino, Dr. Charles Wenar, and Dr. John Gibbs of the Ohio State University for their support and guidance.     

The interview for antisocial behavior: Psychometric characteristics and concurrent validity with child psychiatric inpatients

The present study evaluated psychometric features and correlates of the Interview for Antisocial Behavior (IAB), a new measure designed to assess antisocial child behavior. Parents of 264 psychiatric inpatients (ages 6–13 years) completed the measure to evaluate antisocial behavior of their children. The investigation evaluated the relation of IAB scores to clinically derived diagnoses and to aggression and externalizing behaviors, as measured by different raters (parents, teachers), across different settings (home, school, hospital), and with different assessment methods (rating scales, behavioral role-play test). The results indicated that the IAB showed acceptable levels of internal consistency. A priori scores (severity, duration, total antisocial behavior) and factor analytically derived scales (Arguing/Fighting, Covert Antisocial Behaviors, Self-Injury) distinguished children with a DSM III diagnosis of conduct disorder, and scores on the IAB were more consistently related to other measures of aggression and externalizing behavior than to measures of internalizing behavior or overall severity of dysfunction. The implications of the results for use of the measure, particularly in relation to evaluation of the overt-covert dimension of antisocial behavior, are discussed.Completion of this research was facilitated by a Research Scientist Development Award (MH00353) and by grants (MH35408, MH39642) from the National Institute of Mental Health and the Rivendell Foundation.     

Men,shame and antisocial behavior: A psychodynamic perspective

This paper discusses the psychosocial factors that contribute to male antisocial behavior. The role of shame and related affects is emphasized. Compensatory defenses associated with these affects are also described. Developmental concepts are reviewed in the light of recent research. Finally, some of the issues involved in doing psychotherapy with this population are discussed, with an emphasis on the value of group therapy.Parts of this paper were presented at the second annual conference onCulture, Race and Ethnicity in Group and Family Therapy which was sponsored by the Eastern Group Psychotherapy Society and New York University and was held in New York City, March 20–22, 1987.     

A meta‐analysis of serotonin metabolite 5‐HIAA and antisocial behavior

During the past 25 years, researchers have examined the relationship between neurochemical variables and antisocial behavior in human adults, but none has been studied more intensely than the serotonin metabolite 5‐hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5‐HIAA). The goal of the current study was to employ meta‐analytic procedures to quantitatively evaluate selected evidence on the relationship between 5‐HIAA and antisocial behavior. It was expected that antisocial groups would show reduced cerebrospinal fluid 5‐HIAA compared with non–antisocial groups. This study also aimed to assess moderators that could influence the relationship between 5‐HIAA and antisociality. An electronic search and strict inclusion criteria identified 20 reports used in this meta‐analysis. Results showed a significant overall mean effect size (ES = –.45, P < .05) in the direction of lowered 5‐HIAA in antisocial vs. non–antisocial groups. A significant moderating effect for age indicated that groups comprised of antisocial individuals younger than 30 years exhibited larger negative effect sizes (ES = –1.37, P < .05) than groups with older subjects (ES = –.31, P < .05). There were no moderating effects for gender, target of violence, history of suicide, and alcoholism. Age effects may help explain age‐related declines in crime. The fact that effects did not differ based on other moderating variables supports models of reduced serotonin in antisocial individuals, regardless of type of crime or psychiatric problems. Aggr. Behav. 28:299–316, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

A search for parenting style: a cross-situational analysis of parental behavior

Cross-situational stability in parents' emotional warmth and guidance was studied by observing parents (N = 77, M age = 38 years) with their school-aged child in 2 dyadic problem-solving situations and in a family discussion concerning a moral dilemma. The observational data were coded by independent observers using dimensional ratings and dichotomous frequency counts as the 2 coding procedures. These procedures yielded a similar pattern of findings. Parents tended to behave consistently across situations, although the type of situation did affect the amount of emotional warmth and guidance manifested by the parent. Stability was further analyzed by means of structural equation modeling to test whether variance in parents' emotional warmth and guidance across situations was attributable to a generalized parenting style factor. A Parenting Style factor was identified that reflected the parents' child-centeredness; this factor explained, in part, parental behavior within each situation, although contextual factors also contributed to situation-specific variations from task to task.     

Applying behavior analysis to school violence and discipline problems: Schoolwide positive behavior support

School discipline is a growing concern in the United States. Educators frequently are faced with discipline problems ranging from infrequent but extreme problems (e.g., shootings) to less severe problems that occur at high frequency (e.g., bullying, insubordination, tardiness, and fighting). Unfortunately, teachers report feeling ill prepared to deal effectively with discipline problems in schools. Further, research suggests that many commonly used strategies, such as suspension, expulsion, and other reactive strategies, are not effective for ameliorating discipline problems and may, in fact, make the situation worse. The principles and technology of behavior analysis have been demonstrated to be extremely effective for decreasing problem behavior and increasing social skills exhibited by school children. Recently, these principles and techniques have been applied at the level of the entire school, in a movement termed schoolwide positive behavior support. In this paper we review the tenets of schoolwide positive behavior support, demonstrating the relation between this technology and applied behavior analysis.     

Boys' and girls' perceptions of parental discipline in transgression situations

Children's perceptions of parental discipline methods and their perceptions of child gender differences in their parents' choices of discipline methods were assessed. One hundred and seventy 8‐year‐old children (78 boys, 92 girls) in two‐parent families were asked about disciplinary behaviour in five transgression situations. The results pointed to gender differences when the children were talking about themselves. Boys believed that they would receive more physical punishment, milder requests and less induction than girls. Children also indicated that their parents would choose a different response if they (themselves) were of the other sex. Both boys and girls reported that their parents would treat boys more severely than they would girls. The results showed that the responses of those children with a sibling of the other sex did not reveal any gender‐differentiated experience of their parents' discipline strategies. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.