Development of handedness: comparison of questionnaire and performance-based measures of preference

Hand preference has been assessed primarily using questionnaires. This approach is difficult to use with children so researchers have frequently used observation of hand choice when children pick up and use tools. Recently we developed such a performance-based measure, the WatHand Box Test (WBT). Participants ranging in age from 2 to 24 years each completed the WBT and the Revised Waterloo Handedness Questionnaire. Analyses revealed a strong preference for the right hand across all age groups on both tests with no significant differences across age and a significant correlation between the two measures. These findings do not concur with other work showing children younger than six years exhibited a much smaller right-hand preference. The concordance between these two preference measures is consistent with our previous findings. However, the relatively small common variance explained in this relationship suggests that these two tests may reflect somewhat different components of preference.     

A performance measure of the degree of hand preference

The present paper describes a performance method for determining hand preference. The task requires participants to reach into different regions of hemispace to perform various actions (point, pick up, toss, sweep, and position) with a dowel located at each position. In accordance with the participants' hand preference as measured by the Waterloo Handedness Questionnaire, the preferred hand was used more frequently on the various performance tasks. The distribution of hand use in working space indicates that preferred hand use was almost exclusive for actions carried out in ipsilateral hemispace, while it is used only moderately for actions in contralateral hemispace, revealing that this hand is used throughout a wider range of extrapersonal space than the nonpreferred hand. These trends were observed across all of the performance tasks, suggesting that task complexity did not affect the frequency of preferred hand use either overall or, more specifically, in right hemispace, as was predicted. This finding is inconsistent with empirical work on questionnaires indicating that verbal reports of preferred hand use increase for more complex tasks (e.g., Steenhuis & Bryden, 1988). As well, performance on the preferential reaching task correlated significantly with hand preference as measured on the Waterloo Handedness Questionnaire (Bryden, 1977), unlike the other performance measure examined, indicating that the preferential reaching task is sensitive to differences in the degree of hand preference.     

Unimanual performance across the age span

The purpose of the current investigation was to examine the age-related changes in the performance of the two hands on the Annett pegboard (Annett, 1970). The current study was part of a large-scale study investigating the development of unimanual and bimanual performance. Three hundred and two right-handed individuals participated in the present study, comprising five different age groups (3-5 year olds, 6 and 7 year olds, 8 and 9 year olds, 10-12 year olds, and 19-24 year olds). All participants completed the Waterloo Handedness Questionnaire and the standard Annett pegboard. Analyses revealed significant overall performance differences between the hands, as expected, where the right hand was significantly faster than the left hand. Additionally, significant performance differences between the hands were noted as a function of age. More specifically, the adults showed a much smaller performance difference between the hands than the other age groups. The results are discussed in light of current theories of the development of hand preference and manual asymmetry.     

Cultural Difference in Hand Preference: Evidence from India and Japan

Indian (N = 400) and Japanese (N = 502) adult subjects were examined for their hand preference on a 7-point scale (1 = left always, 7 = right always) of the 32-item Waterloo Handedness Questionnaire (Steenhuis & Bryden, 1989). Factor analyses of the data yielded a two-factorial structure of hand preference: skilled and unskilled. Interaction of Culture × Hand preference indicated that Indians had more right-hand preference for unskilled activities whereas Japanese subjects had more right-hand preference for skilled activities. Further analyses revealed that the frequency of middle category responses was more common in Japanese subjects. Indian subjects were found to give more extreme responses for either right- or left-hand preference. Findings are discussed in the light of cultural training given to the individuals in these two societies, which are essentially collective in nature.     

Hand differences in pegboard performance through development

Handedness is often measured by comparing the relative performance of the two hands on a given task, such as peg moving. Studies of the development of manual skill have typically found that the difference between the hands for a peg-moving task does not fluctuate with age. The current study was conducted to examine age-related changes in manual performance, on the standard Annett pegboard. Ninety-eight right-handed individuals ranging in age from 5 to 24 performed three trials on the pegboard with each hand. Performance with each hand was reflected in movement time and as a laterality quotient. Analyses revealed a right-hand advantage in performance which was larger in the younger than the older participants. The smaller hand difference in the older participants appeared due to greater changes in performance with the non-preferred hand as a function of age.     

Handedness and footedness in Korean college students

This study was conducted to obtain normative data on foot preference and to compare footedness and handedness in a large sample (N = 866) of college students in Korea, where left-hand use for writing and other public acts is severely restricted (Kang & Harris, 1993). Based on scores from Korean-language versions of the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory (EHI; Oldfield, 1971) and the Waterloo Footedness Questionnaire Revised (WFQ-R; Elias, Bryden, & Bulman-Fleming, 1988), 11% of the subjects were left-footed but only 4.2% as left-handed. A significantly higher percentage of left-handers than right-handers showed crossed lateral preference, that is, for preference of the opposite-side foot. Of the left-handers with crossed preference, the majority were inconsistent left-handers (ILH; Peters & Servos, 1989), whereas most of those with uncrossed preference were consistent left-handers (CLH). Factor analysis of the EHI and WFQ-R revealed 2 handedness factors and 2 footedness factors. The footedness factors for skilled unipedal actions and for balancing-stabilizing varied in direction, strength, and relation to handedness in mixed-footers and left-handers, consistent with the possibility that the division of footedness into these categories might be neuropsychologically meaningful.     

Intermanual differences on neuropsychological motor tasks in a Japanese university student sample

We explored the intermanual difference scores of 128 Japanese university students for five typical neuropsychological motor tasks (grip strength, finger tapping, two versions of the grooved pegboard, and the dot‐filling test) and examined the relation between hand preference and intermanual difference in motor proficiency. Using the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory, 18 and 110 participants were identified as left‐ and right‐handed, respectively. Although the right hand performed better than the left for right‐handed participants, and vice versa, in all five tasks, the degree of intermanual difference varied between tasks. A discriminant function analysis using the laterality quotients of the five motor tasks as independent variables indicated that hand preference was predictable from the task performances with an accuracy of 90% or more. The dot‐filling test and finger tapping had stronger canonical loadings than the other tasks.     

The use of bouts and frequencies in the evaluation of hand preferences for a coordinated bimanual task in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): an empirical study comparing two different indices of laterality

Hand preferences for a coordinated bimanual task were assessed in 109 chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Hand preference was evaluated for 4 test sessions using bouts and frequencies of hand use to compare the sensitivity of each level of analysis in evaluating individual variation in handedness. Overall, significant population-level right-handedness was found using several different measures of hand use. Handedness indices based on bouts and frequencies were highly and significantly correlated. Moreover, hand preferences were consistent across tests despite efforts to situationally bias preference during each test. Taken together, these data do not support the view that bouts are a better level of analysis for evaluating hand preference. The results further suggest that hand preferences for coordinated bimanual actions are not influenced by situational factors and may reflect an inherent specialization of the left hemisphere for motor skill.     

Does owner handedness influence paw preference in dogs?

Animal Cognition - Handedness has proven to be the most effective and least intrusive measure of laterality in many species. Several studies have investigated paw preference in dogs (Canis...     

Unidirectional interference in use of nondominant hand during concurrent Grooved Pegboard and random number generation tasks

The interference effect between Grooved Pegboard task with either hand and the executive task of cued verbal random number generation was investigated. 24 normal right-handed subjects performed each task under separate (single-task) and concurrent (dual-task) conditions. Articulatory suppression was required as an additional secondary task during pegboard performance. Analysis indicated an unambiguous distinction between the two hands. Comparisons of single-task and dual-task conditions showed an asymmetrical pattern of unidirectional interference with no practice effects during pegboard performance. Concurrent performance with nondominant hand but not the dominant hand of random number generation performance became continuously slower. There was no effect of divided attention on pegboard performance. Findings support the idea that the nondominant hand on the pegboard and random number tasks draw from the same processing resources but that for the executive aspect random number generation is more sensitive to changes in allocation of attentional resources.     

A developmental analysis of the relationship between hand preference and performance: II. A performance-based method of measuring hand preference in children

The present study describes a performance-based method of measuring hand preference in children. Three aspects of handedness were considered to be important in developing the paradigm (a) overall hand preference across a number of tasks, (b) consistency of hand use and, (c) the use of the preferred hand in a bimanual task. The new paradigm, termed the WatHand Box Test (WBT), requires participants to perform a variety of unimanual tasks such as, using a hammer, tossing a ball, and opening a lock with a key. To determine the validity of the WBT and examine the developmental trends in hand preference, eighty right-handed children and adults (ages 3-4, 6-7, 9-10, and 18-24 years) performed the WBT. First, the WBT was found to correlate significantly with scores on a standard hand preference questionnaire for the adults. As well, significant developmental trends were noted in hand preference as measured by the WBT. Most specifically, three- and four-year-olds had significantly lower scores on the WBT indicating a less stable pattern of hand preference than in the other three age groups.     

The relationship between Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (rRST), handedness and indecision

Indecisiveness is an inability to make a decision, manifest across a number of behaviours. We explore the influence that both direction and strength of hand preference may have on this construct, examining it in relation to the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (rRST). Frost and Shows’ (1993) Indecisiveness Scale was administered to 328 undergraduates (221 females), alongside the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory (Oldfield, 1971) and Carver and White’s (1994) BIS/BAS scales. Simple correlations showed left-handers had a positive relationship between strength of handedness and BIS. In right-handers, strength and aversive indecision were positively correlated. Regression analysis demonstrated no significant relationship between hand strength and indecision, but that indecision was related to all three measures of rRST. Consistent with previous work, BIS was positively related to all indecision but particularly aversive, while BAS was negatively related to indecision but most strongly the avoidant category. We found that FFFS is more closely related to aversive than avoidant indecision. The relationship between rRST and indecision may be influenced by handedness; for right-handers the same pattern was found, but in left-handers BAS was not a significant predictor of indecision, BIS only predicted aversive indecision and FFFS predicted all three categories.     

Comparison of two alternative measures of the boundary construct

'Mental boundaries' is a traditional concept in psychology, although attempts to conceptualize and measure such boundaries empirically have only recently been pursued. Two major efforts in this respect are Hartmann's Boundary Questionnaire and the Revised Transliminality Scale of Lange, Thalbourne, Houran, and Storm. We administered both along with the Briggs-Nebes Handedness Scale to a convenience sample of 268 participants to assess the convergent validity of the two boundary measures and to replicate previous evidence that the boundary construct involves body boundaries as well, such as a tendency toward mixed-handedness. As predicted, scores on the Revised Transliminality Scale correlated .66 positively with total scores on the Boundary Questionnaire, but neither measure was associated with the handedness scale. Each of the 12 domains of the Boundary Questionnaire correlated significantly with total scores on the Transliminality Scale, yet only five domains contributed significantly to the prediction of variance in transliminality scores in a standard multiple regression analysis. Analysis suggests that transliminality is related to specific domains of the Boundary Questionnaire, and we hypothesize that the other domains of the Boundary Questionnaire represent higher levels of the boundary construct than what is measured by the Revised Transliminality Scale. This idea is discussed within the context of Werner's 1948 theory of syncretic versus symbolic cognition.     

Correlation between tests of attention and performance on grooved and Purdue pegboards in normal subjects

This study investigated the relation between tests of manual dexterity and attentional functions with 49 normal, right-handed medical students (26 women, 23 men, ages 19-30 years) who were assessed with a Purdue Pegboard Test, Grooved Pegboard Test, and a Test for Attentional Performance, comprising measures of tonic and phasic alertness and divided attention. Weak to moderately high partial correlations controlling for finger size were obtained between pegboard test performance of the left hand and phasic alertness (r = .31-.50). Purdue Pegboard Assembly subtest scores were weakly correlated with divided attention (r = -.39). These findings suggest that attention is an important determinant of performance for manual dexterity tests of the nondominant hand.     

Familial handedness and spatial ability: a study with Chinese students aged 14-24

This study tested Annett's right-shift theory on spatial ability with two samples from China. The Vandenberg Mental Rotation Test (MRT), Edinburgh Handedness Inventory, and Family Handedness Questionnaire were administered to 266 high school students and 297 undergraduates. We found very few r++ or r-- among Chinese students. Most Chinese are either moderately right-handed or ambidextrous. Consistent with Casey's finding, we found using different methods to classify handedness leads to different conclusions. However, we did not find the effect of familial handedness that Casey found. Visual strategy is related to success on the MRT but handedness is not.     

Cross-modal correlation of auditory and visual language laterality tasks: a serendipitous finding

Two experiments were conducted to investigate whether auditory and visual language laterality tasks test the same brain processes for verbal functions. In the first experiment, 48 undergraduate students (24 males, 24 females) completed both an auditory monitoring task and a visual monitoring task, with the Waterloo Handedness Questionnaire administered between the two tasks. The visual task was an analogue of the dichotic listening task used. It was hypothesized that a significant cross-modal correlation would be found, indicating that the dichotic listening task and the visual analogue task do, in fact, test the same brain processes for verbal functions. Results revealed a right ear advantage in the auditory task, a left visual field advantage (LVFA) in the visual task, and a cross-modal correlation of asymmetries of -.09. The LVFA observed in the visual task was replicated in Experiment 2, thus establishing its legitimacy. Results are discussed in relation with the type of processing that might produce such an unexpected finding on the visual task.     

Predicting Accuracy and Liking Ratings for Bogus and Real Personality Feedback

After taking the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF), 119 students subsequently received computer-generated traditional bogus (Barnum) and real (16 PF) interpretations. Each subject rated both interpretations for accuracy and likability on a 13-point scale and then chose (forced choice) which interpretation was the more accurate and which one they liked better. Barnum feedback was judged significantly more accurate than real feedback, but not better liked. Stepwise multiple-regression analyses of all dependent measures indicated that 16 PF sten scores accounted for significant amounts of variance in 16 PF Accuracy and Liking scores and in the various preference measures.     

Hand and eye preference and their association with task approach by preschoolers

Hand preference, eye preference, and the concordance of hand-eye preference were assessed in 99 healthy preschool-age children (46 boys: Mage= 55.4 mo., SD= 10.5 and 53 girls: Mage=53.6 mo., SD= 11.8). Children were also administered neuropsychological measures requiring attention and reaching to both sides of midline including the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Third Edition, Multiple Boxes Test, Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment Visual Attention, and Imitating Hand Positions. All groups performed in the average range using standard administration and scoring of the neuropsychological tests, and no significant differences were found in performance between those with left- versus right-hand preference, left-versus right-eye preference, or concordant versus discordant hand/eye preference. In contrast, significant differences were noted in task approach to neuropsychological measures depending on hand preference. Rate of left-hand preference in this sample was consistent with that seen for adults; and rate of left-eye preference, and hand/eye concordance remained stable across age groups 3 to 6 years. While the presence of left-hand or -eye preference or discordance in the preschool years appears to be a benign characteristic in relation to standardized test performance, some aspects of test-taking efficiency may be affected.     

Intra-individual stability of neuromotor tasks from 6 to 18 years: a longitudinal study

This study investigates the intra-individual stability of the speed of several motor tasks and the intensity of associated movements in 256 children (131 girls, 125 boys) from the Zurich generational study using the Zurich neuromotor assessment battery (ZNA) over a 12-year period from the age of 6 to 18 years. The stability was assessed by correlograms of standard deviation scores calculated from age- and gender-adjusted normative values and compared with standing height and full scale intelligence quotient (IQ). While motor tasks of hand, finger and foot (HFT) and contralateral associated movements (CAM) exhibited a moderate stability (summary measure as correlation coefficients between two measurements made 4 years apart: .61 and .60), other tasks (dynamic balance, static balance and pegboard) were only weakly stable (.46, .47 and .49). IQ and height were more stable than neuromotor components (.72 and .86). We conclude that the moderately stable HFT and CAM may reflect “motor traits”, while the stability of the pegboard and balance tasks is weaker because these skills are more experience related and state-dependent.     

Sport injuries: relations to sex, sport, injured body region

Relationships among hand preference, nonverbal intelligence, and the monocular shifts of binocular focal point were studied in 33 men and 12 women university mathematics students. Ocular dominance was assessed with the Miles test. The monocular shift of binocular focal point for each eye was assessed with a modified Miles test. Hand preference was assessed on the Edinburg Handedness Inventory. Nonverbal intelligence was assessed with Cattell's Culture Fair Intelligence Test. In a prior study, the percentage of left-eye preference had been reported to be greater for mathematics students than for nonmathematics students. In the present study there were positive correlations between hand preference and the sum of the monocular shifts of two eyes. In addition, there was a negative correlation between nonverbal intelligence and the sum of the monocular shifts of two eyes. As these resultssuggest that the sum of the monocular shifts of two eyes may be related to mathematical ability and nonverbal intelligence, further research with a larger sample including non-mathematics students is needed.