Shifting Winds: Using Ancestry DNA to Explore Multiracial Individuals’ Patterns of Articulating Racial Identity

This study explored how genotype information affects identification narratives of multiracial individuals. Twenty-one multiracial individuals completed individual interviews before and after receiving a DNA analysis to clarify their genetically based racial ancestry. Based on results, this article proposes patterns of articulating racial identity by multiracial individuals. Four patterns extend evolving research in multiracial identification, namely (1) the individual articulates a monoracial identity; (2) the individual articulates one identity, but this can shift in response to various conditions; (3) the individual articulates an extraracial identity, opting out of traditional categories applied to race; and (4) the person distinguishes traditional categories of race from culture and owns the two identities in different ways. Implications of these findings are discussed. First, adding new ancestry DNA information further muddles the neat categories of race, consistent with the view of race as socially constructed. Second, results emphasize the fluidity of identification for multiracial individuals. Third, DNA information challenges the neat percentages people tend to associate with their backgrounds. Particularly for younger multiracial individuals, there was less of a sense that race was a real thing and more that culture played a big part in how they saw themselves.     

An integrative review of impression formation processes for multiracial individuals

In approximately 30 years, up to one in five Americans will be mixed race. How monoracial people perceive multiracials will become a critical aspect of race relations in the United States. This demographic shift highlights the need to broaden social psychological theories and investigations to understand multiracial person perception. This article reviews existing research on how people perceive, and remember mixed‐race people, with attention to how these findings contribute to our understanding of racial categorization, impression formation, and intergroup relations. People categorize multiracial people according to the principles of hypodescent (Black + White = Black), the minority bias (Black + White = not White), and by adopting a novel category (Black + White = Multiracial). The particular categorization of a multiracial target depends on several factors, including availability of target information (ancestry, facial appearance), the accessibility of different racial categories, perceiver motives, and the broader cultural context. Downstream implications of these categorization processes are discussed, and future directions are highlighted. Researchers are encouraged to think about race as a multifaceted concept that includes many components (appearance, identity, ancestry, and perceived) that are not necessarily one‐to‐one, especially for mixed‐race individuals.     

Beyond Discrete Categories: Studying Multiracial,Intersex, and Transgender Children Will Strengthen Basic Developmental Science

Developmental research on social categorization has overwhelmingly focused on perceptions about and experiences of individuals who are clear or prototypical members of discrete and usually dichotomous social categories. For example, studies of social categorization, stereotyping, prejudice, and social identity have generally explored how children reason about others who are gender-typical boys or girls or monoracial White or Black children. Similarly, research participants have generally been gender-typical and monoracial. However, our efforts to build theories that account for the true range of variation require acknowledging the increasing visibility of children who do not fit into these discrete categories and raise the question of whether existing theories can capture the dynamics that arise for them. Focusing on race and gender/sex, the social categories that have received the most attention in the developmental literature, we review research that has gone beyond simple dichotomies by including multiracial, gender-nonconforming, or intersex children, either as the targets of social perception or as participants themselves. We argue that this emerging work reveals problematic assumptions built into our theories and methods and highlights the value of building a more inclusive science.     

Relationship between physical appearance, sense of belonging and exclusion, and racial/ethnic self-identification among multiracial Japanese European Americans

In this study the authors explored the relation of physical appearance, perception of group belonging, and perception of group exclusion to racial/ethnic identity in multiracial Japanese European Americans. Results indicate that physical appearance and social variables of sense of belonging and exclusion related to one monoracial racial/ethnic group significantly predicted self-identity with the corresponding monoracial group. There was also a significant relationship between Japanese American identity and multiracial appearance and social variables. Feelings of exclusion were shown to be the primary influence on all three racial/ethnic identities.     

Social Categorization and Stereotyping In vivo: The VUCA Challenge

A substantial literature has examined the nature of social categorization, a fundamental process having important implications for a wide variety of social phenomena. The great majority of this research has focused on the role of particular, clearly identified social categories (e.g. race, nationality, etc.) while ignoring or holding constant other identity dimensions. This approach has afforded considerable leverage for understanding how salient social identities influence perception, judgment, and behavior. However, it leaves unaddressed many questions about how particular social identities become salient and how (and whether) identities might be inferred when category membership is ambiguous or unknown. Everyday social perception often occurs under conditions of volatility (dynamic contexts), uncertainty (missing information), complexity (multiple bases for categorization), and ambiguity (unclear meaning of available cues). As a consequence, research must address how these factors might qualify basic processes of social categorization. Available evidence is reviewed, and directions for future research are discussed.     

Multiple racial identities as sources of psychological resilience

Much of the research on multiracial individuals has focused on the impact of a multiracial background on psychological well‐being. This work, often using clinical samples, identified a higher prevalence of negative psychological outcomes among multiracial individuals, such as low self‐esteem, poor grades, or self‐hatred, and has emphasized that these negative outcomes stem from the unique challenges associated with navigating multiple racial identities. However, research on nonclinical samples finds that multiracial individuals fare as well as monoracial individuals on these, and other, outcomes. We put forth a synthesizing theory aimed at understanding how multiracial individuals develop adaptive coping strategies, which help them learn to navigate multiple identities and maintain positive psychological outcomes. In the current contribution, we build on existing research to theorize that multiracial individuals can engage in two psychological strategies that increase resilience: (a) switching between multiple racial identities and (b) reduced essentializing of race. Evidence and consequences of these two strategies are discussed. Taken together, in contrast to traditional depletion models of coping, this work highlights the unique experience of multiracial individuals and the potential psychological benefits of belonging to multiple racial groups in a racialized world.     

Complicating race: the relationship between prejudice, race, and social class categorizations

Although racial stereotyping and prejudice research have received considerable attention, the important element of social class has been largely excluded from social psychological research. Using the Statement Recognition Procedure, two experiments investigated social categorization along race and social class dimensions, the influence of racial and social class prejudice on these categorizations, and differences between White and Black perceivers. Analyses conducted at the subtype of race and social class memberships demonstrated differing patterns of categorization based on subtype membership. For example, lowerclass Black targets were primarily categorized by race, whereas middle-class Black targets were primarily categorized by social class. The results demonstrate the importance of considering social class membership independent of and in conjunction with race. Theoretical and methodological implications regarding the study for race and social class categorizations are discussed.     

Negotiating Racial Identity

Abstract

Counseling research on racial identity development among multiracial people has largely overlooked the complexity of these individuals' social experiences and how their multiple realities result in various racial identities. The assumptions that individuals with one Black and one White parent can only understand themselves as “Black” or “biracial” have been socially, culturally and politically constructed, providing a misguided foundation for models of racial identity. Here, we present findings from a study of 177 biracial individuals that illustrate the multidimensionality of racial identity among this population. We focus on the mechanism of interactional validation in identity construction to better understand the particular dilemmas faced by biracial women and formulate appropriate therapeutic approaches.     

The social construction of race: biracial identity and vulnerability to stereotypes

Multiracial individuals are more likely to have a heightened awareness of race as a social construct than monoracial individuals. This article examines the impact that a heightened awareness of race as a social construct has on the relationship between racial stereotypes and performance. Study 1 finds that multiracial individuals reported subscribing less to the notion that race biologically determines ability. Study 2 finds that monoracial individuals show stereotype activation, whereas multiracial individuals show stereotype inhibition in reaction to race salience. Study 3 draws on the work on stereotypes and performance to test the susceptibility of multiracial individuals to racial stereotypes about ability. The authors find that Asian/White and Black/White multiracial individuals were less susceptible to racial stereotypes than monoracial individuals. Whereas monoracial participants showed significant performance changes in reaction to race salience, multiracial individuals did not. Study 4 finds that emphasizing the social construction of race buffers individuals from stereotype threat effects.     

面孔识别过程中多重社会亚范畴的交互作用

认知者往往依据陌生个体面孔所携带的性别、年龄、种族等多重社会范畴信息对其进行加工,以期快速识别和了解他人。在基于面孔识别的多重社会范畴加工过程中,亚范畴间存在着复杂的交互作用。研究者分别采用"Who Said What"范式、重复启动范式、加纳选择注意范式、鼠标追踪范式等方法,发现亚范畴间的内隐加工具有彼此削弱的特性,外显加工存在交互影响的不对称性和偏差性。动态交互理论对此进行了进一步的理论分析与阐释。今后需更加科学地区分社会范畴加工的各个阶段,凸显内隐和外显加工的区别与联系;同时进一步整合各研究范式,克服方法异质导致的结果偏差甚至矛盾。     

社会分类的概念、线索及影响机制

作为社会认知的基本过程和重要途径,社会分类对预测刻板印象和群际感知、减少多元文化群体中的关系冲突、促进推理与决策以及指导社会关系推断等都有重要作用。人们进行社会分类的线索可以概括为明显线索和模糊线索、自然线索和社会线索以及静态线索和动态线索。社会分类会受到分类对象、情境和感知者等的作用,同时对人们认知、情绪、情感和行为等产生一系列影响。未来可以基于跨文化和发展视角探讨社会分类的线索偏向、潜在机制及立足本土文化检验社会分类的影响及干预策略。     

Development of own-race biases

This review examines the emergence and development of perceptual and social biases towards own-race individuals. We first discuss evidence regarding the early emergence of an own-race bias in facial preferences and face recognition abilities demonstrated by infants with an abundance of visual experience with own-race individuals, but little to no experience with other-race individuals. We then consider perceptual categorization of face race, visual scanning, and differential processing of own- and other-race faces in relation to recognition of face identity. Finally, we review evidence regarding own-race preferences for social partners and own-race biases in social evaluations that emerge during early childhood. Implications of the existing evidence for understanding the role of experience in perceptual development and the emergence of racial preferences and stereotypes are discussed.     

Multiracial Identity,Color‐Blind Racial Ideology,and Discrimination: Professional Counseling Implications

Because of the expansive multiracial population growth in the United States, the authors explored multiracial identity integration (MII), color‐blind racial ideology (CBRI), and discrimination using regression analyses with 288 individuals. CBRI and discrimination significantly correlated and predicted MII, with 15.3% of the variance explained by discrimination and CBRI. Moderation analysis revealed that CBRI did not moderate the relationship between discrimination and MII. Continued research among multiracial individuals is recommended to better understand the CBRI and racial identity link.     

The multiplicity of belonging: Pushing identity research beyond binary thinking

Abstract

To date, research has primarily used a singular identity framework for investigating how social identity shapes behavior. Thus, research has also largely ignored the role that having multiple, simultaneous identities may play in our lives. This paper reviews work that pushes that singular identity framework beyond either/or binary constructs of identity. Specifically, through exploring racial identity flexibility for biracial populations and activating a flexible, multiple identity mindset more broadly outside of racial domains, these results demonstrate the potential impact of multifaceted self-views on flexible behaviors. Related work concerning other multiply belonging individuals are also discussed in line with a call for needed research to pinpoint new models and mechanisms for understanding the multiplicity of belonging.     

Natural ambiguities: Racial categorization of multiracial individuals

Understanding the perception of multiracial persons is increasingly important in today's diverse society. The present research investigated the process of categorizing multiracial persons as “Multiracial.” We hypothesized that perceivers would make fewer Multiracial categorizations of multiracials and that these categorizations would take longer than monoracial categorizations. We found support for these hypotheses across six experiments. Experiment 1 demonstrated that perceivers did not categorize morphed Black–White faces as Multiracial with the same frequency with which they categorized Black and White faces as Black and White (respectively), and that categorizations of multiracials as Multiracial took longer than monoracial categorizations. Experiment 2 replicated and extended these effects to real Black–White faces. Experiment 3 showed that these findings generalized to Asian–White faces. We used pixel variance analysis to show that these effects were not due to increased variance among Multiracial faces. The image analysis showed that the Black–White morphs and real biracials were actually less varied than either the Black or White sets of faces. Experiments 4 and 5 demonstrated that cognitive load and time constraints detrimentally affected multiracial, but not monoracial, categorizations. Experiment 6 showed that imbuing monoracial categories with importance decreases the use of the Multiracial category. Implications of these findings for understanding perceptions of multiracial persons are discussed.     

The stigmatized perceiver: Exploring the implications of social stigma for cross-race face processing and memory

The human face is an important source of information, such as race or ethnicity, which can guide social interaction and outcomes. Research suggests that compared to majority and dominant group members, minority and subordinate group members tend to experience chronic stigma, resulting in more negative life outcomes (e.g., educational and occupational attainment). We argue that theory and research exploring face perception has not led to models that incorporate how the chronic experience of stigma may impact judgments, reflecting a gap with potential consequences for the validity and generalizability of the theories developed. We propose a framework for understanding how experiencing a socially stigmatized racial identity may lead perceivers to engage in face processing differently from their non-stigmatized counterparts. With a focus on the literature examining the cross-race effect, we explore the potential impact of chronic social stigma on three theorized moderators guiding processing and memory for same-versus cross-race faces. Our analysis suggests that future research focusing on stigmatized perceivers could help to explain some variation in findings, lead to novel theoretical development, and ultimately produce more generalizable research across several domains of inquiry.     

On the interactive influence of facial appearance and explicit knowledge in social categorization

Although people form impressions of others with ease, sometimes one's initial perceptions of individuals conflict with what one knows about them. Here, we aimed to investigate the process by which explicit knowledge about people interacts with initial perceptions on the basis of cues from facial appearance. Participants memorized the sexual orientations of men's faces wherein half of the targets were encoded with a sexual orientation opposite to their actual orientation. Subsequent categorization showed that perceivers favored appearance‐based information when temporally constrained but favored explicit knowledge about group membership with increased viewing time. Additionally, real‐time measures of participants' categorizations showed greater vacillation between appearance‐based cues and explicit knowledge as viewing time increased. These findings suggest that explicit knowledge does not simply overrule appearance‐based cues past a particular threshold but that the two may interact recurrently with top‐down knowledge directing attention and perception at later processing. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Perspectives and research on the positive and negative implications of having multiple racial identities

Much attention has been directed toward understanding the impact having a multiracial background has on psychological well-being and adjustment. Past psychological research has focused on the challenges multiracial individuals confront in defining a racial identity. The implication is that these challenges lead to outcomes that are psychologically detrimental. However, evidence to support this assertion is mixed. The authors review qualitative and quantitative empirical research examining multiracial individuals' identity development, depression, problem behaviors, peer relationships, school performance, and self-esteem, finding support for detrimental outcomes only in studies sampling clinical populations. Studies on nonclinical samples find that multiracial individuals tend to be just as well-adjusted as their monoracial peers on most psychological outcomes. Earlier assertions of maladjustment may have been due to reliance on qualitative research that sampled clinical populations. Other implications and future research are discussed.     

Role of identity integration on the relationship between perceived racial discrimination and psychological adjustment of multiracial people

This study examined relations between perceived racial discrimination, multiracial identity integration (i.e., racial distance and racial conflict), and psychological adjustment (i.e., distress symptoms, positive affect, and negative affect) of 263 multiracial adults, using an online cross-sectional survey design. As hypothesized, higher levels of perceived racial discrimination was related to lower levels of psychological adjustment (i.e., higher distress symptoms and negative affect). Also, higher levels of multiracial identity integration with low racial conflict was related to higher levels of psychological adjustment (i.e., lower distress symptoms and negative affect), whereas higher levels of multiracial identity integration with low racial distance was related to higher levels of psychological adjustment (i.e., lower negative affect). Finally, multiracial identity integration (i.e., lower racial conflict) moderated the relationship between perceived racial discrimination and psychological adjustment (i.e., negative affect) with results suggesting multiracial identity integration related to low racial conflict buffers the negative effects of perceived racial discrimination on psychological adjustment. Findings from this study are discussed in terms of future research on the psychological well-being of multiracial individuals and implications for clinical practice with multiracial adults.     

Evidence for hypodescent and racial hierarchy in the categorization and perception of biracial individuals

Individuals who qualify equally for membership in two racial groups provide a rare window into social categorization and perception. In 5 experiments, we tested the extent to which a rule of hypodescent, whereby biracial individuals are assigned the status of their socially subordinate parent group, would govern perceptions of Asian-White and Black-White targets. In Experiment 1, in spite of posing explicit questions concerning Asian-White and Black-White targets, hypodescent was observed in both cases and more strongly in Black-White social categorization. Experiments 2A and 2B used a speeded response task and again revealed evidence of hypodescent in both cases, as well as a stronger effect in the Black-White target condition. In Experiments 3A and 3B, social perception was studied with a face-morphing task. Participants required a face to be lower in proportion minority to be perceived as minority than in proportion White to be perceived as White. Again, the threshold for being perceived as White was higher for Black-White than for Asian-White targets. An independent categorization task in Experiment 3B further confirmed the rule of hypodescent and variation in it that reflected the current racial hierarchy in the United States. These results documenting biases in the social categorization and perception of biracials have implications for resistance to change in the American racial hierarchy.