Assessing the Quality of the Parent–Child Relationship: Validity and Reliability of the Child–Parent Relationship Test (ChiP-C)

The ChiP-C is a clinically oriented questionnaire for assessing the quality of the child-parent relationship according to the child’s subjective appraisal. The ChiP-C is based on family systems theory and a cumulative vulnerability model. The questionnaire consists of 36 items representing three resource scales, five risk scales, and one additional scale. This article presents the theoretical framework and main psychometric properties of the ChiP-C. A school-based sample of 1,377 youth (ages 10–20; M = 14.4) and a clinic-referred consecutive sample of 197 patients (ages 10–18, M = 14.0) were surveyed. Construct validity was determined by confirmatory factor analyses. The mean of the internal consistencies was 0.79. Systematic correlations between the ChiP-C scales and the German EMBU confirmed the convergent and discriminant validity of the ChiP-C. Moreover, all ChiP-C scales were shown to be significantly correlated with psychopathological symptoms as measured by parent and youth questionnaires. The ChiP-C can be considered an economical screening instrument for a reliable and valid assessment of strengths and disturbances of the child-parent relationship according to the child’s subjective appraisal.     

Comparison of Mothers' and Fathers' Opinions of Parent–Child Interaction Therapy

Opinions of parenting programs mostly have been obtained from mothers. Because mothers and fathers' interactions with children differ, gathering data from both parents regarding behavior modification and parenting programs is necessary. This project was part of a larger study and compared mothers and fathers' acceptability of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) and its various components. Acceptability data were obtained using the Treatment Evaluation Inventory-Short Form and a modified version of this measure assessing specific PCIT components. The sample consisted of 40 community mother-father pairs of a young male child. Findings suggest gender differences in PCIT treatment acceptability and various PCIT components.     

Effects of a Workplace Intervention on Parent–Child Relationships

This study tested whether effects of a workplace intervention, aimed at promoting employees’ schedule control and supervisor support for personal and family life, had implications for parent–adolescent relationships; we also tested whether parent–child relationships differed as a function of how many intervention program sessions participants attended. Data came from a group randomized trial of a workplace intervention, delivered in the information technology division of a Fortune 500 company. Analyses focused on 125 parent–adolescent dyads that completed baseline and 12-month follow-up home interviews. Results revealed no main effects of the intervention, but children of employees who attended 75 % or more program sessions reported more time with their parent and more parent education involvement compared to adolescents whose parents attended <75 % of sessions, and they tended to report more time with parent and more parental solicitation of information about their experiences compared to adolescents whose parents were randomly assigned to the usual practice condition.     

A Latent Profile Analysis of the Parent–Adolescent Relationship: Assessing Both Parent and Adolescent Outcomes

Using family systems and attachment theory frameworks, this study identified specific dimensions of the parent–adolescent relationship and examined the association between those dimensions and adolescent depression and delinquency, and parental depression 2 years later in a racially and ethnically diverse sample. Parent–adolescent relationships were identified using a person-centered approach, latent profile analysis, using closeness, communication, conflict, and autonomy as dimensions of the relationship. The latent profile analysis produced a four-profile solution, which was labeled secure, avoidant, anxious, and detached. Next, parent and adolescent outcomes were examined. Results indicated that adolescents in the detached profile exhibited the highest amount of delinquency, whereas the parents exhibited the lowest amount of depression. Adolescents in the avoidant profile also exhibited high levels of delinquency, and parents in this profile also exhibited the highest amount of depression symptoms. No profile differences were found for adolescent depression symptoms. Implications for family interventions are discussed.     

Parent–child talk and children's understanding of beliefs and emotions

We examined the development of children's understanding of beliefs and emotions in relation to parental talk about the psychological world. We considered the relations between parent–child talk about the emotions of characters depicted in a picture book, false belief understanding and emotion understanding. Seventy-eight primarily Caucasian and middle-class parents and their 3- to 5-year-old children participated (half boys and half girls). The emotions talked about were relatively simple, but the complexity of the situation varied in terms of whether or not an understanding of beliefs was required to understand the emotion. Talk about the belief-dependent aspects of the emotions of picture book characters predicted children's false belief understanding, whereas talk about non-belief-dependent aspects of these emotions predicted children's emotion understanding. We argue that these data suggest that the development of children's understanding of beliefs and emotions is intertwined with learning to talk about the psychological world.     

A Sequential Examination of Parent–Child Interactions at Anesthetic Induction

Parental presence is often employed to alleviate distress in children within the context of surgery under general anesthesia. The critical component of this intervention may not be the presence of the parent per se, but more importantly the behaviors in which the parent and child engage when the parent is present. The purpose of the current study was to examine the sequential and reciprocal relationships between parental behaviors and child distress during induction of general anesthesia. Participants were 32 children (3–6 years) receiving dental surgery as a day surgery procedure, and their parents. A modified Child Adult Medical Procedures Interaction Scale-Revised was used to code parent and child behaviors. Initial child distress led to increased parental provision of reassurance and decreased provision of physical comfort. Our findings may inform the development of preoperative preparation programs whereby parents can be appropriately educated about what behaviors will be helpful/unhelpful for their child during induction of general anesthesia.     

Parent–adolescent attachment and procrastination: The mediating role of self-worth

Within the theoretical framework of attachment theory, the author examined associations between adolescents' procrastination and their attachment relationships with both mothers and fathers, and explored the potential mediation role of self-worth in these associations. Participants were 384 Chinese adolescents (49.6% boys, average age 15.13 years) from public schools in Shanghai, China. They completed self-report measures of 3 dimensions of parental attachment (i.e., trust, communication, and alienation), general self-worth, and procrastination. The results indicated that both paternal and maternal trust and paternal communication were negatively associated with higher levels of procrastination whereas both paternal and maternal alienation were positively associated with procrastination. In addition, self-worth mediated the associations among 3 dimensions of parental attachment and procrastination. The findings highlighted the importance of parental attachment-based intervention strategies to reduce procrastination among adolescents.     

The Effectiveness of Group Parent–Child Interaction Therapy with Community Families

Parent–Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) is a behavioral, parent-training program that incorporates both operant learning and play therapy techniques to treat child disruptive behavior problems. The present pilot study examined the use of a group PCIT protocol with a mixed clinical sample of primarily low-socioeconomic status community families. Forty families with a child between the ages of 2 and 8 years old were either self-referred to the group or referred by child protective services, and 27 began treatment. Following a standard group PCIT protocol, 17 families completed treatment. Caregivers who completed the PCIT group reported a significant decrease in child disruptive behavior and parenting stress following completion of the 12-week group. Behavior observations of the treatment completers revealed a significant increase in parent prosocial behavior and a decrease in inappropriate parent behavior from pre- to post-treatment. As there have been no demonstrations, to date, of group PCIT in a community-based setting, this study presents evidence that PCIT is a promising treatment format for dissemination research and practice. The benefits and challenges of using a group PCIT format for delivery of clinical services are discussed.     

A Parent–Child Interactional Model of Social Anxiety Disorder in Youth

In this paper, one of the most common disorders of childhood and adolescence, social anxiety disorder (SAD), is examined to illustrate the complex and delicate interplay between parent and child factors that can result in normal development gone awry. Our parent–child model of SAD posits a host of variables that converge to occasion the onset and maintenance of this disorder. Specifically, five risk factors—temperamental characteristics of the child, parental anxiety, attachment processes in the parent–child dyad, information processing biases, and parenting practices—will be highlighted. While it is acknowledged that other factors including genetic influences and peer relationships may also be important, they are simply not the focus of this paper. Within these constraints, the implications of our parent–child interaction model for prevention, treatment, research, and practice will be explored.     

Preventing Maltreatment with a Community-Based Implementation of Parent–Child Interaction Therapy

The purpose of this study was to examine rates of child abuse and neglect reports following a community implementation of Parent–Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT), an evidence-supported intervention for the prevention of maltreatment. Among a group of families receiving PCIT, predictors of reports were examined including family demographics, course of treatment, changes in clinical measures, and caregiver report for prior maltreatment victimization and perpetration. Participants (n = 120) included families at-risk for future maltreatment with and without prior maltreatment history. Agency case records were linked with state administrative records of child welfare reports. Time to follow-up ranged from 13 to 40 months. Bivariate and multivariate survival analyses were used to model risk for a later report. During the follow-up period, 12.5 % of families had a report for physical abuse or neglect. Reports of prior victimization as a child and prior perpetration as an adult were strong predictors of a report of perpetration after PCIT. Dosage of PCIT and change in clinical measures did not increase risk for a later report. PCIT can be an effective intervention for preventing maltreatment. Family history of child welfare involvement is a prominent factor in assessing risk for future involvement.     

Crying as a Form of Parent–Infant Communication in the Context of Maternal Depression

In cases of maternal depression certain complex factors interfere with communication with the child. The present study sought to investigate forms of parent–infant communication in families in which the mother was experiencing postpartum depression. Particular emphasis was placed on analysis of crying patterns and on methods employed by parents to soothe the child. The study sample comprised 15 families in which the mother had a diagnosis of postpartum depression. Semi-structured interviews were performed, followed by qualitative content analysis. Results showed that depressed mothers—and, at times, their husbands—reported difficulties in communication with their child, particularly in distinguishing different types of cries and in ways of soothing the infant. Postpartum depression is discussed as a specific diagnosis, beyond its relational aspect, which affects the family as a whole.     

Parent–Adolescent Attachment and Academic Adjustment: The Mediating Role of Self-Worth

Within the theoretical framework of attachment theory, this study examined associations between adolescents’ attachment relationships with both mother and father and their academic adjustment, and explored the potential mediation role of self-worth in the associations. Participants were 384 Chinese adolescents (49.6% male, average age?=?15.13 years) from public schools in Shanghai, China. They completed self-report measures of mother–adolescent attachment, father–adolescent attachment, general self-worth, academic engagement and school grades. The results indicated that adolescents’ attachments to both parents were associated with higher levels of academic engagement. There was partial support of the mediating role of self-worth, as adolescents who had high levels of parent–adolescent attachment were more likely to have high levels of self-worth, which in turn enhanced their academic engagement and then improved high school grades. The findings highlighted the importance of parental attachment-based intervention strategies to promote and maintain academic adjustment among adolescents.     

Parent–Teen Interactions as Predictors of Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents with Headache

This study investigated parent–adolescent conflict, family functioning, and adolescent autonomy as predictors of depressive symptoms in adolescents with primary headache. Frequent headaches during adolescence can have a negative impact on activity levels and psychological functioning. Depression is particularly prevalent in adolescents with headache but little research has examined the role of parent–teen interactions in predicting depressive symptoms. Thirty adolescents diagnosed with migraine or chronic daily headache completed self-report measures of pain intensity, parent–adolescent conflict, family functioning, and depression. Adolescents and their parents also participated in three videotaped interaction tasks, scored by independent raters to assess adolescent autonomy. Regression models revealed that pain intensity, parent–adolescent conflict, and autonomy predicted depressive symptoms. Higher levels of conflict, poorer family functioning and lower levels of autonomy were associated with more depressive symptoms. This study highlights the association between parent–teen interactions and psychological functioning in adolescents with primary headache. Implications for intervention are discussed.     

The Communication of Naïve Theories of the Social World in Parent–Child Conversation

Three studies examined the communication of naïve theories of social groups in conversations between parents and their 4-year-old children (N = 48). Parent–child dyads read and discussed a storybook in which they either explained why past social interactions had occurred (Study 1) or evaluated whether future social interactions should occur (Studies 2 and 3). In all 3 studies, the content of parents’ and children's explanations reflected an intuitive theory of social groups as markers of intrinsic obligations, whereby individuals are obligated to avoid harm to and direct positive actions toward their in-group members. Furthermore, Studies 2 and 3 suggested that when discussing the normative obligations that guide behavior, parents covertly reinforce their children's developing beliefs about social categories. Implications for the development of social cognition are discussed.     

Perceived Parent–Child Relations and Adolescent Self-Esteem

We used data drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to assess the independent and interactive correlations of maternal and paternal parenting with adolescent self-esteem. Specifically, ordinary least squares regression was used to provide estimates for a large, culturally diverse sample of married, biological parent-families with adolescent children. Our results suggested that adolescent reports of mothers’ and fathers’ physical availability, involvement, and quality of relations are each independently associated with adolescent self-esteem. In addition, statistically significant interactions indicated the positive associations of one parent’s involvement and high quality relations with self-esteem grow stronger in the presence of high involvement and relationship quality of the second parent. Our study highlights the need to assess the independent and interactive associations parents have with the well-being of their children.     

Gender Differences in Parent–Child Emotion Narratives

Early parent–child conversations about past emotional experiences provide a rich environment for the socialization of emotions. This study explored the role of parent and child gender in this process. Participants were 21 White, middle-class, 40- to 45-month-old children and their mothers and fathers. At separate home visits, each parent discussed with their child four specific past events during which the child experienced happiness, anger, sadness, and fear, respectively. Mothers conversed more overall, talked more about emotional aspects of the experience, and used more emotion words than did fathers. Similarly, girls talked more about emotional aspects of their experiences than did boys. Further, girls used more emotion words when discussing scary events than did boys. Most intriguingly, both mothers and fathers used more emotional utterances when discussing sad events with daughters than with sons. Parent–daughter dyads also placed emotional experiences in a more interpersonal context than did parent–son dyads. Implications for the development of gender, emotional understanding, and clinical repercussions are discussed.     

Actor–Partner Interdependence of Compassion toward Others with Qualities of Marital Relationship and Parent–Child Relationships in Chinese Families

Considering the nature of compassion and cultural and times characteristics of Chinese families, individuals' general dispositional compassion toward others may have potential benefits for relationship qualities in Chinese families. In this study, we explored how men's and women's compassion related to their own (actor effects) and the partners' (partner effects) marital relationship and parent–child relationships, respectively, using the Actor–Partner Interdependent Model. Participants were from a cross-sectional sample of 534 Chinese heterosexual married couples (females' mean age = 37.20, SD = 4.28; males' mean age = 40.29, SD = 5.39) whose biological children were pupils (mean age = 9.28, SD = 1.11). Results revealed that: (a) within marital relationships, couple members' actor effects and partner effects were found both significant; but (b) within parent–child relationships, couple members' actor effects were significant, whereas only mothers' partner effect of compassion on father–child relationship was significant. These findings support the benefits of couple members' individual compassion with respect to family relationship quality in contemporary China. Limitations, implications, and future directions are discussed.     

A Community Mental Health Implementation of Parent–Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT)

Parent–Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) has been identified as an evidence-based practice in the treatment of externalizing behavior among preschool-aged youth. Although considerable research has established its efficacy, little is known about the effectiveness of PCIT when delivered in a community mental health setting with underserved youth. The current pilot study investigated an implementation of PCIT with primarily low-socioeconomic status, urban, ethnic minority youth and families. The families of 14 clinically referred children aged 2–7 years and demonstrating externalizing behavior completed PCIT initial assessment, and 12 began treatment. Using standard PCIT completion criteria, 4 families completed treatment; and these families demonstrated clinically significant change on observational and self-report measures of parent behavior, parenting stress, and child functioning. Although treatment dropouts demonstrated more attenuated changes, observational data and parent-reported problems across sessions indicated some improvements with lower doses of intervention. Attendance and adherence data, referral source, barriers to treatment participation, and treatment satisfaction across completers and dropouts are discussed to highlight differences between the current sample and prior PCIT research. The findings suggest that PCIT can be delivered successfully in an underserved community sample when families remain in treatment, but that premature dropout limits treatment effectiveness. The findings suggest potential directions for research to improve uptake of PCIT in a community service setting.