The Possible Place of Cognitive Appraisal in the ABC Model Underlying Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy

In a critique of Ellis' Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) theory of personality, it has been argued that, among other strategies, REBT personality theory could be significantly advanced by attempting to incorporate within it already established theoretical constructs compatible with the cognitive-behavioral movement. Richard Lazarus' prominent, well-articulated, and extensively studied theoretical construct of cognitive appraisal seems ideal in this regard. In the present article, the relevant and salient aspects of Lazarus' construct are described. An attempt is then made to delineate the possible place of cognitive appraisal in the ABC model underlying REBT. Finally, the clinical implications of this proposed ABC model refinement are then explored, and an additional REBT therapeutic strategy based upon the cognitive appraisal construct, reappraisal training, is suggested and briefly described.     

The Construct Of Personality In Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (Rebt) Theory

In this article it is argued that, if Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) is to survive and prosper in the next century, it will require a more comprehensive and detailed theory of personality at its base. Ideally, REBT personality theory preferably should avoid certain basic shortcomings of other personality theories. Toward these ends, an explicit definition of the term personality is proposed for REBT theory emphasizing psychological individuality, cognition, emotion, and behavior, and their interrelationships. The central concepts in the proposed definition are then explored along with related broad-based hypotheses generally amenable to empirical test. Finally, some implications of the proposed definition of personality for treatment are then discussed.     

It's prime time for rational emotive behavior therapy: Current theory and practice,research recommendations,and predictions

This article identifies the current rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) playing field as we head towards the 21st century. Some of the important refinements, embellishments and clarifications of REBT theory and practice as described in the Ellis' 1994 revision ofReason and Emotion in Psychotherapy are reviewed. The second section of the paper presents a variety of recommendations concerning ways in which future REBT research can help bolster its scientific status. Finally, predictions by REBT experts concerning the longevity of REBT and whether it can maintain its distinctive identity within the cognitive behavior therapy movement are revealed.     

Freud, Rogers, and Ellis: A Comparative Theoretical Analysis

Albert Ellis, Sigmund Freud, and Carl Rogers are widely recognized as the three most influential psychotherapists of the twentieth century. In the present article, it is argued that the striking differences in their therapeutic systems, Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), psychoanalysis, and person-centered therapy, respectively, are rooted in more fundamental theoretical differences concerning the essential nature of client personality. The positions of Freud, Rogers, and Ellis on three critical issues in personality theory especially relevant for the practice of psychotherapy are examined and comparatively analyzed. The critical issues are: (1) nature vs. nurture as the foundations of personality; (2) the potency of reason in human behavior; and (3) the possibility of fundamental personality change. For each critical issue the treatment implications are also briefly explored with a view toward illustrating how the theorists' positions directly translate into therapeutic practice. The basic intent of this comparative analysis is to strengthen and further clarify the personality theory underlying REBT.     

Albert Ellis at 85: Professional Reflections

An extended interview was conducted at the Albert Ellis Institute coinciding with Albert Ellis' 85^th birthday. Questions were submitted in advance by Michael Bernard and covered areas central to the theory and practice of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT). Clarification was sought for: a) the primacy of cognition in REBT theory, b) critical features of REBT interventions for the treatment of anxiety, depression, guilt, anger and procrastination, c) the long-standing inclusion of self-efficacy training and problem solving with mainstream practice of REBT, d) psychoeducational aspects of REBT, and e) the self-actualizing tendency.     

The Concept of Psychological Health in Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy

The argument has been made that if Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) is to survive and prosper in the 21st century, its underlying personality theory requires further development and clarification. In this spirit, the concept of psychological health in REBT theory is examined in the present article. The concept of psychological health in personality theories is discussed briefly, as are the core aspects of the REBT view of emotional disturbance. Given that necessary context, a definition of the essence of psychological health in REBT theory is proposed and discussed. The clinical implications of the proposed definition are then explored.     

The Primacy of the “Shoulds”: Where Is the Evidence?

A central tenet of rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) has always been that irrational beliefs which express demands through absolutistic shoulds, musts or oughts are the basic cause of emotional disturbance. This premise is characteristic of Ellis' theory but is not always supported by other REBT writers or other writers within the cognitive therapy field. This paper reviews a range of research findings which appear to call into question Ellis' tenet of the primacy of the shoulds and which, in turn, raise theoretical and methodological difficulties in the measurement of beliefs. This along with the current theoretical debate regarding irrational belief processes may preclude the possibility of testing the proposition that demandingness is the primary irrational or dysfunctional belief.     

Cognitive behavioral grief therapy

From a REBT perspective, loss through death is viewed as an intense negative and traumatic Activating event which effects the Belief system and related emotional and behavioral Consequences. Grief, then, is seen as a normal reaction and the process that follows is a necessary one characterized by the bereaved attempting to reorganize a shattered belief system. In the present paper a distinction between functional and dysfunctional grief is made. Based on Ellis' differentiation between iB's and RB's, typical irrational grief-related beliefs are identified (with specific focus on pain related ones). Various REBT interventions aimed at facilitating a more functional, healthier course of grief are suggested.     

Identity and Constructivism:Grounding the Self in Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy

Albert Ellis' contribution to psychotherapy has been monumental, and he has argued that REBT is a philosophically based project. Especially after 1986, Ellis further argued that biological predisposition accounted for much of our tendencies toward rationality and irrationality. Further, he has called for non-rating of one's self or being (that call itself being an evaluation). We have argued, as has Ellis, for a tertium quid, character, also located in biological predisposition (ontology). Distinctions are drawn between types of constructivism (and construction), one of those foundational to REBT. We have accounted for a common sense self that can be evaluated and yet be unconditionally accepted. The self in REBT can be distinguished from roles. A reasoning self in the service of desires while allowing for LFT (DA) is preserved.     

A Synopsis of Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT); Fundamental and Applied Research

The article presents a synopsis on rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT), its fundamental theoretical framework, its applications, and future directions. The paper is organized according to the following structure: in part one, REBT fundamental/basic research is discussed; in the second part clinical/applied research in REBT is presented, including aspects of efficacy and effectiveness, discrimination of disorders for which REBT works most effectively, and its relations to other therapies. Uses and misuses of REBT and their impact on research and future developments are presented as well. While it is true that REBT research has many shortcomings, the overgeneralization and/or magnification of the negative, and the minimization of the positive are dysfunctional beliefs that maintain the false idea in the field that REBT has few empirical studies and that REBT research is in serious trouble. A balanced approach, analyzing both the strengths and weakness, suggest that REBT has hundreds of research articles and that high-quality studies tend to support REBT’s basic theory and efficacy. However, to strengthen this conclusion and to fully explore the potential of REBT, shortcomings of REBT research need to be corrected, and high-quality studies promoted. This is particularly important since, although effective, cognitive-behavioral psychotherapies have not yet reached “the desired standard” of efficacy and effectiveness, as about 30–40% of people are still nonresponsive to these interventions Thus, REBT could be a platform of reinvigorating empirical studies on the efficacy/effectiveness and theory of cognitive-behavioral models of psychopathology and human functioning. Mount Sinai School of Medicine, Biobehavioral and Integrative Medicine Programs, New York, USA.     

Idiosyncratic definitions and unsupported hypotheses: Rational emotive behavior therapy as pseudoscience

My concerns about Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) began over a decade ago. I find its concepts lack adequate and consistent definitions, its distinctive hypotheses are not confirmed by empirical data and are untestable, and its scientific foundations fall outside mainstream psychology. Contrary to what it claims, its practice and philosophy are not consisten with the use of reason in psychotherapy. These criticisms are discussed and documented. Practitioners may not be aware of the unsubstantiated claims and theoretical assumptions inherent in REBT, and that they adopt these assumptions when practicing REBT.     

Materials for an analysis of a just universe

There is one assumption that is shared by practically all popular religious and philosophic systems, ancient and modern, Eastern and Western. In truth it may well be that it is this single assumption which makes such ‘systems’ possible. That shared assumption is the belief in a ‘just universe’, i.e. ‘just’ in the sense of morally ordered, morally predictable and morally explainable. This assumption rests, as most assumptions must, on pragmatic grounds; that is to say, the assumption is retained or used because it gets the users where they want to go, i.e. the assumption works. But if it could be shown that this assumption, aside from being useful, leads to insuperable logical or empirical problems, then this might be prima facie grounds for rejecting the assumption. Part I examines the historical roots of the assumption of a just universe. Part II, examines three implications that would seem to follow from the assumption that the universe, the world, is a just place in which to live. Part III explores the unacceptable consequences that are found in and that follow from these three implications and that necessitate the rejection of the assumption of the just universe of Part I.     

REBT and Rationality: Philosophical Approaches

This paper argues that philosophical critiques of concepts in psychotherapy are inappropriate unless the context in which they are used is taken into account. In the case of REBT it is misleading to try to evaluate Ellis' use of rationality by matching it with the concept which has developed in modern philosophy of science. There is no pure essence of rationality which could enable it to be applied normatively in all contexts. The pitfalls of attempting this are illustrated by analysing two recent attempts to criticise rationality in REBT, by Erwin (1997) and O'Donohue and Vass (1996). We argue that Rationality in REBT can only be understood by seeing it as part of a network of categories and practices (a discursive formation) that has evolved over the last 45 years.     

Is REBT Marginalized?: A Survey of Counselor Educators

A questionnaire of 200 counselor educators assessed the marginalization of REBT in their preferred personal theory and in teaching. REBT was marginalized in personal theory although three quarters were influenced by REBT in their theory of choice. REBT was not marginalized in teaching and a majority noted teaching REBT in classes. Reasons for marginalization, or objections to REBT were factored into three categories: preference for another theory, deficiencies in REBT theory, and deficiencies in REBT application. Recommendations are given to address marginalization.     

Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy: A Positive Perspective

Through his development of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT), Albert Ellis was a major contributor to the development of cognitive behaviour therapy. This article reviews key aspects of REBT, the distinction between unhealthy and healthy emotions, and the role irrational and rational beliefs play in relation to these emotions. As with other areas of psychology, the focus of REBT over the years has been dominated by negative emotional experiences. In an attempt to address this and further develop REBT, the present article reviews recent claims from the realm of social psychology that positive illusions promote mental health. Consequently, it is proposed that a similar dichotomy of healthy and unhealthy positive emotions also exists, and a basic framework for working with this positive dichotomy is introduced.     

Can Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy Lead to Spiritual Transformation? Yes, Sometimes!

When possible, Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) has always aimed for thorough-going philosophic change. It instructs people to transform their fundamental approach to life and shows them how to become (1) less prone to disturbance and (2) active seekers of that which, for them, constitutes the zoom of living. Rather than spend time telling people the meaning of life, REBT shows them how they may more frequently, more intensely and for longer periods of time have the experience of full and deep living. By doing so, REBT can well be seen as a source of spiritual transformation.     

Uses of rational emotive behavior therapy with juvenile sex offenders

Juvenile sexual offenses appear to be on the rise. This contributes to harm and trauma to the victims and the community at large. For many years the major interest in sex offender treatment has been directed toward assessment and treatment of the adult offender in spite of the reported large proportion of all sex crimes committed by juveniles (Uniform Crime Reports, FBI, 1985). Our article addresses three uses of Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT): 1) in group and individual therapy, 2) in work with the offender's family, and 3) in staff training. The issues of the client's faulty learning and cognitive distortions is critical in the habilitation and rehabilitation process and may include such messages as: 1) I am powerless to control my sexual arousal, 2) I won't get caught if I am careful, 3) Masturbating about little kids is OK, 4) I need to feel better and when I am sexual with someone I feel better. This article will describe how the theory and practice of REBT (Ellis' 1984) is applied with juvenile sex offenders. A key feature is its use with the offending juvenile in the teaching of a rational belief system as well as ways to reduce emotional disturbances.     

Marginalisation Is Not Unbearable. Is It Even Undesirable?

Marginalised movements in psychology and psychotherapy tend to retain their identity, and the writings of their founders continue to exercise an influence. Once absorbed into the mainstream the identity is lost, and the founders are relegated to the forgotten past. Movements are kept marginalised when they are at odds with the central, untested assumptions (the hard core) of the mainstream. Many of REBT's insights have already been assimilated by the mainstream, which is currently an alliance between experimental psychology and CBT. But the mechanistic hard core of the mainstream is at odds with normative assumptions about self-worth held by REBT. As long as that continues REBT is likely to remain marginalised, but will keep its most significant insights.     

The Common Beliefs Survey-III, The Situational Self-Statement, and Affective State Inventory and Their Relationship to Authoritarianism and Social Dominance Orientation

The concept of irrational beliefs is central to rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT). These beliefs are defined by their absolutist and dogmatic qualities. The terms absolutist and dogmatic are also characteristic of some personality constructs, right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) being foremost among these. A relatively new personality construct, social dominance orientation (SDO) is similar to RWA in that both are excellent predictors of prejudice. As these two constructs are independent of each other, it has been suggested that they have different etiological underpinnings. The present study examined the relationship between the presence of irrational beliefs in people scoring high in RWA and SDO. Results suggest that high RWAs are more likely than high SDOs to endorse irrational beliefs. These findings add to the growing literature examining the relationship between these two personality constructs as well as suggesting possible implications for the use of REBT with clients scoring high on these personality dimensions.     

Problematic Factorial Validity of Three Language Versions of the Basic Psychological Needs Scale (BPNS): Why and What are the Implications?

Self-determination theory is a macrotheory of human motivation that describes fundamental matters such as personality development, goals and aspirations, and self-regulation. Basic psychological needs theory, a subtheory of self-determination theory, postulates that the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are universal and the satisfaction thereof essential for human functioning. Despite the theory’s strong universality claim, almost no studies tested the assumption on the African continent. The present study addressed this by exploring the factorial validity of English, Afrikaans, and Setswana versions of the Basic Psychological Needs Scale (N = 1056). After incorporating a negative-worded method effect and removing several problematic items, the fit of the intended three-factor model was good for the Afrikaans version, marginal for the English version, and poor for the Setswana version. The resulting factors’ reliabilities were low. Configural, metric, and partial scalar invariance were established between the English and Afrikaans versions. Although these findings primarily highlighted problems with the particular scale, there is also the possibility that it could have implications for the validity of the universality assumption of basic psychological needs theory and/or assumptions about denotations or manifestations of the main constructs in various cultural contexts. The study indicated the conceptual and linguistic complexities involved in assessment across diverse and multicultural contexts.