The relational-interdependent self-construal and relationships

Three studies describe the development and validation of a measure of the relational-interdependent self-construal, which is defined as the tendency to think of oneself in terms of relationships with close others. Study 1 reports the development, psychometric properties, and tests of validity of this new measure. Individuals who scored high on the Relational-Interdependent Self-Construal (RISC) Scale characterized their important relationships as closer and more committed than did individuals who scored low on this measure (Study 1) and were more likely to take into account the needs and wishes of others when making decisions (Study 2). In Study 3, using a dyadic interaction paradigm with previously unacquainted participants, the partners of persons who scored high on the RISC scale viewed them as open and responsive to their needs and concerns; these perceptions were related to positive evaluations of the relationship.     

The association between compassionate goals and relational-interdependent self-construal

Although research has examined the consequences of relational self-construal (RSC), little is known about what psychological factors predict it. Four studies examined the association between compassionate goals and RSC. Study 1 showed that compassionate goals are positively associated with RSC in college students. Study 2 replicated this association among adults in romantic relationships. Studies 3 and 4 showed that compassionate goals predict increased RSC over time in college roommates. Moreover, Studies 2–4 showed that responsiveness to relationship partners statistically mediated the association between compassionate goals and self-construal. These studies suggested that people with compassionate goals have high RSCs and that they also develop higher levels of RSC by being responsive to relationship partners.     

Thinking about oneself and others: the relational-interdependent self-construal and social cognition

These studies focus on the relational-interdependent self-construal's association with implicit or indirect cognitive processes. In the relational-interdependent self-construal, the self is defined largely in terms of close relationships, resulting in variation in self-related processes. In Studies 1 and 2, the relational self-construal was associated with positive implicit evaluations of relational concepts and with tightly organized cognitive networks of relational terms. Studies 3 and 4 demonstrated that this self-construal was associated with memory for and implicit organization of relational information. In Studies 5 and 6, the relational self-construal was positively related to the degree to which participants described themselves and a friend similarly. The implications of the relational self-construal for theories of relationship cognition and for other self-related cognitive processes are discussed.     

Narcissism, variability in self-concept, and well-being

The present research examined whether narcissism is related to higher variability in self-concept across roles and time points. Three indices of self-concept variability across roles were formulated based on the participants’ self-ratings for personality attributes. A probabilistic sample in Study 1 as well as a student sample in Study 2 revealed that the narcissistic personality inventory (NPI) positively correlated with the variability indices, except for the self-concept differentiation (SCD), while well-being measures were only related to SCD. The student sample also showed a significant correlation between NPI and longitudinal variability in self-concept within a month-long interval. Implications for the instability of the narcissistic self-concept and its relationship with psychological well-being are discussed.     

Culture,identity consistency,and subjective well-being

All individuals have multiple views of themselves. Whereas the consistency among the different aspects of identity is emphasized in Western cultures, the "multiple selves" are often viewed as coexisting realities in East Asian cultures. This research revisits the classic thesis in psychology that identity consistency is a prerequisite condition of psychological well-being. Between individuals (Study 1), people with a more consistent self-view had a more clear self-knowledge, were more assertive, and, most notably, had self-experiences that were less affected by the perspectives of others. Compared with North American participants (Study 2), Koreans viewed themselves more flexibly across situations, and their subjective well-being was less predictable from levels of identity consistency. Also, consistent individuals received positive social evaluations from others in the United States but not in Korea.     

Getting to know you: the relational self-construal, relational cognition, and well-being

Individuals with a highly relational self-construal define the self in terms of their close relationships with others. Consequently, they seek to nurture and develop new relationships. These studies examine individual differences in the self-construal in the context of a new roommate relationship, with a focus on cognitive aspects of relationship development. Study 1 revealed that persons with a highly relational self-construal were better able than others to predict a new roommate's values and beliefs. Study 2 showed that highly relational individuals tended to think optimistically about a new roommate's feelings about the relationship. The relational self-construal was more strongly related to these measures of relationship cognition in distant relationships than in very close relationships. Participants' self-construals and their perceptions of the closeness of the roommate relationship interacted in predicting well-being, revealing an unexpected negative relation between closeness and well-being for participants with a low relational self-construal.     

Social cognitive and self-construal predictors of well-being among African college students in the US

We examined social cognitive and cultural predictors of academic satisfaction in African students studying at American universities. In addition to predictors drawn directly from the social cognitive model of work and educational well-being (Lent, 2004; Lent & Brown, 2006, 2008), self-construal was included in the predictive model as a culture-specific variable with potential relevance to academic satisfaction. Self-construal refers to the way in which one's thoughts, behaviors, and feelings are guided by one's relationship to self and others (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). The findings indicated that the model, with some modification, fit the data well and accounted for 59% of the variance in academic satisfaction. The findings also suggested that the three indicators of self-construal (personal, relational, and collective) do not relate directly to academic satisfaction but rather operate through mediated pathways. Implications of the findings for research and practice are discussed.     

Expectations of consistency about the self: Consequences for self-concept formation

This study proposes that the on-line versus memory-based judgment distinction has important implications for understanding self-concept formation and content. Past research has shown that perceivers form on-line judgments of targets who are expected to display a great deal of behavioral consistency (e.g., individuals) but form memory-based judgments of targets who are expected to display less behavioral consistency (e.g., groups). Experiment 1 found that perceptions of behavioral consistency for the self were strong and closer to perceptions of consistency for individuals than for groups. Thus, we predicted that self-concepts should, by default, be formed on-line. Experiment 2 supported this prediction. Experiment 3 manipulated participants’ expectations of behavior consistency and found that those expecting greater consistency in their behaviors formed on-line self-concepts. Experiment 4 used a different methodology and behavioral domain, and it collected more direct process data that further supported the importance of the on-line versus memory-based distinction for the self. Implications for understanding self-concepts and for comparing self-knowledge to how people understand other types of social entities are discussed.     

The role of the self-concept and the social context in determining the behavior of power holders: self-construal in intergroup versus dyadic dispute resolution negotiations

In this work, the authors explored how a person's view of himself or herself might determine his or her use of power in a complex dispute resolution negotiation. In 3 studies of asymmetric power in negotiations, the authors demonstrated that the impact of power on motivation and behavior is moderated by both a person's self-view and the social context. In Study 1, the results revealed that in a one-on-one dispute, powerful individuals primed to hold an interdependent (as opposed to independent) self-construal are more generous in resolving their disputes with low-powered opponents. Study 2 replicated this finding but revealed a different pattern in intergroup disputes, in which powerful interdependent teams of negotiators are actually less generous than are independent teams. Study 3 provided a conceptual replication of Study 2, with the use of chronic measures of self-construal and self-reported measures of behavior. Results suggest that an interdependent self-construal may lead to a more benevolent use of power in dyadic conflicts but more exploitive uses of power in intergroup conflicts. Implications for the understanding of power and self-construal are discussed.     

The attractiveness of enriched and impoverished options: culture, self-construal, and regulatory focus

The authors propose that there is a systematic impact of a person's activated self-construal (interdependent vs. independent) on the evaluation of enriched and impoverished options. This hypothesis is tested using a cross-country comparison of participants from China and the United States (Study 1) and by priming self-construal (Study 2) and regulatory focus (Study 3). Results show that people with an independent self-construal and a promotion focus perceive enriched options as more attractive than impoverished options. Conversely, people with an interdependent self-construal and a prevention focus perceive enriched options as less attractive than impoverished options. Mediation analyses show that the effect of cultural orientation operates through self-construal. In turn, self-construal operates through activated regulatory focus. Analysis of cognitive responses shows that the effect of regulatory focus is mediated by positive/negative thoughts about option attributes.     

Culture, self-construal, and affective reactions to successful and unsuccessful others

Three studies examined whether cultural background and self-construal predict affective reactions to successful and unsuccessful others. Asian-Canadians and those with more interdependent self-construals had less positive affective reactions to an unsuccessful than a successful other, and less positive affective reactions to an unsuccessful other than did European-Canadians and those with less interdependent self-construals (Study 1). Priming self-construal in a sample of European-Canadians mimicked these cultural differences (Study 2), and this priming effect was moderated by cultural background (Study 3). Asian-Canadians primed with interdependence (but not independence) had less positive affective reactions to an unsuccessful than a successful target, whereas European-Canadians primed with independence (but not interdependence) had more positive affective reactions to an unsuccessful than a successful target.     

Distinguishing between authenticity and personality consistency in predicting well-being: A mixed method approach

Introduction

The relationship between role personality consistency and well-being is somewhat ambiguous, with past research relying on methods confounded by social desirability or role stereotypes, or conflating consistency with authenticity.

Psychosocial development, self-concept, and gender

Undergraduate students (N = 88; 51 males and 37 females) completed the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS; Fitts, 1965) and the identity versus identity diffusion and intimacy versus isolation scales from Constantinople's (1969) Inventory of Psychosocial Development (IPD). Strong positive correlations were found between ego identity and all aspects of self-concept for both males and females. Different results emerged for the intimacy versus isolation crisis, however. For males, all aspects of self-concept were related to a sense of intimacy, but for females intimacy was related only to the behavioral and interpersonal aspects of self-concept. The implications of these findings are discussed and the contingency of intimacy upon ego identity is questioned with regard to females.