Balm in Gilead: Racism, Religious Involvement, and Psychological Distress Among African-American Adults

Although a long tradition of theoretical and sociohistorical analysis has suggested that religious practices and values help African Americans in coping with the distressing sequelae of racism and discrimination, few studies have examined this issue with systematic, quantitative, empirical data. Our work contributes to the literature by: (a) outlining a series of arguments regarding the potential significance of multiple aspects of religious involvement—attendance at services, church-based social support, and religious guidance in daily life—in dealing with harmful psychosocial effects of recent experiences of discrimination; and (b) testing hypotheses derived from two alternative models of the racism-religion-distress relationship using longitudinal data from a nationwide survey. Results indicate that both religious guidance and religious attendance moderate the effects of racism on psychological distress, while congregational support has a direct (but not interactive) effect on distress, thereby partly offsetting (but not buffering) the negative effects of discrimination.     

GENDER AS A MODERATOR OF THE RELATION BETWEEN RACE-RELATED STRESS AND MENTAL HEALTH SYMPTOMS FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS

The present study tested gender as a moderator of the relationship between race-related stress and mental health symptoms among African American adults. Because African American women are exposed to stressors associated with race and gender, we hypothesized that African American women would have higher levels of race-related stress and more severe mental health outcomes related to experiences of race-related stress compared to African American men. Multivariate analyses revealed that African American men had higher stress appraisals for institutional racism than did women. No significant gender differences were found for cultural and individual racism. Moderated regression analyses revealed that increases in stress appraisals for individual racism were associated with increases in anxiety and obsessive-compulsive symptoms for African American women. Race-related stress had no significant effects on mental health symptoms for African American men. The findings suggest that gender is an important factor in determining the impact of race-related stress on mental health.     

“What's going on?” Racism,COVID-19, and centering the voices of Black youth

This study examined the impact of COVID-19 stress and experiences of racism on COVID-19 adaptability and activism among Black youth. The protective role of perceived peer and adult social support were examined. Data were analyzed from 123 Black youth (M_age = 15.44, 63% girls) from a school district in the Midwest. The findings revealed that more social support from adults increased Black youth adaptability (e.g., “ability to think through possible options to assist in the COVID-19 pandemic”). Perceived lower social support from adults predicted higher engagement in high-risk activism, and higher levels of peer social support were associated with higher levels of high-risk activism. Further, Black youth reporting higher levels of racism and adult social support were more likely to report higher levels of COVID-19 adaptability. Black youth reporting higher racism and peer social support engaged in high-risk activism. Black youth who reported high levels of racism and low perceived adult social support reported higher engagement in high-risk activism. Research and practice implications that support Black youth during the COVID-19 pandemic and the impact of racism and COVID-19 stress on well-being and activism are discussed.     

Examining the consequences of exposure to racism for the executive functioning of Black students

Recent research has demonstrated that interracial interactions, reminders of stigmatized identities, and exposure to ambiguous racism can deplete the self-control resources of minority group members. In the current study we examined whether hearing blatant racism expressed in an interracial context would deplete the self-control of Black participants and whether this depletion would be moderated by participants’ level of racial centrality. After listening to a Black or a White confederate express either support for racial profiling (racist condition) or increased campus parking fees (neutral condition), Black participants completed a Stroop color-naming task to assess self-control depletion. Participants experienced self-control depletion following interracial encounters, regardless of whether the views expressed were racist. As expected, however, racial centrality moderated the depletion effect when racism was involved, with participants higher in centrality showing greater depletion following an encounter with racism from a White partner.     

Perceived discrimination and well‐being: a victim study of different immigrant groups

In this study, we compared perceived discrimination and its influence on psychological stress symptoms, and general health status in a nation‐wide probability sample of immigrants in Finland (N = 3595, 42% males, 58% females). The study represents an expansion of a previous work (Liebkind, K., & Jasinskaja‐Lahti, I. (2000a). Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 10, 1–16) by drawing on a representative sample of the adult immigrant population (age group 18–65), and by assessing not only perceived ethnic discrimination but also experiences of racist crimes. The results obtained regarding group differences in perceived discrimination were consistent with previous studies, with results from attitude surveys indicating the hierarchy among the host population regarding preferred immigrant groups, and with our predictions based on the length of residence, cultural distance and visibility of the different immigrant groups studied. Perceived racism and discrimination, especially everyday racism, was highly predictive of the psychological well‐being and general health status of the immigrants. The differences between grouping are discussed in the light of additional factors potentially mediating and moderating the effects of perceived discrimination on well‐being and general health. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Is the attribution of cultural differences to minorities an expression of racial prejudice?

The social psychological literature considers two main perspectives on the study of perceived cultural differences between majorities and minorities: one proposes that perception of cultural differences is an antecedent of prejudice and another states that the attribution of cultural differences to minorities is already a hidden expression of racial prejudice. This paper offers further support to this latter perspective. One hundred and ninety-four participants answered a questionnaire measuring (1) general racist belief; (2) cultural differences attributed to Black people (hetero-ethnicization); (3) the asymmetric attribution of secondary and primary emotions to the in-group and to Black people (infra-humanization); (4) the asymmetric attribution of natural and cultural traits to in-group members and to Black people (ontologization); and (5) negative evaluation of this social category. The general racist belief scale was not anchored in a specific group and measured the belief in the inferiority of certain social groups or peoples based on biological or cultural factors. Relationships between the scales were analysed through a set of Structural Equation Models. According to the predictions, results showed that the attribution of cultural differences is a dimension of prejudice. Results also showed that attribution of cultural differences, negative evaluation of Black people, ontologization, and infra-humanization were different dimensions of a common latent factor that can be identified as racial prejudice; and that prejudice was predicted by general racist belief. Results are discussed in the light of the study of the impact of perceived cultural differences on intergroup relations and in the light of the "new racism" approaches.     

Attachment,Social Support,Resilience and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms in Chinese Adults Living with HIV/AIDS

The present study aimed to examine the effects of attachment, social support and resilience on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in people living with HIV/AIDS. One hundred fifty-two HIV+ adults in China were investigated. The results suggested that attachment anxiety had a significant direct effect on PTSD symptoms and impacted PTSD symptoms indirectly though associations with social support and resilience. Attachment avoidance could also be considered a distal risk factor of PTSD symptoms via the mediation of social support and resilience. The findings highlight the importance of identifying trauma and PTSD symptoms in people affected by HIV/AIDS and suggest that people with attachment anxiety and low social support resources might be at high risk for PTSD.     

Environmental and Family Associations With Racism1

Environmental and family factors related to racism in college students were investigated. Students (N=114) at a southern liberal‐arts college filled out an extensive survey about childhood activities and family of origin, and 40 of their mothers completed a similar survey. The Attitudes Toward Blacks ( Brigham, 1993 ) scale measured racism. Several hypotheses were supported. Students who exhibited less racism also reported that they made more diverse friends in school, came from a more diverse hometown, had diverse encounters and friendships at an earlier age, and had more positive foreign travel experiences. In addition, more racist students perceived their mothers as being more prejudiced while they were growing up, and they perceived their fathers as being more prejudiced currently. Finally, students judged their mothers as less racist than their fathers, and also reported that their mothers exhibited less racist behaviors than did their fathers. The importance of racially diverse experiences and friendships early in life are discussed as means to decrease racism.     

Relationship of racial stressors to blood pressure responses and anger expression in black college students

The physiological effects of racism, as a stressor, were examined as they related to blood pressure (BP) and anger experiences in Black college students. Current research has failed to consider the stressful effects of racism as a factor contributing to the higher incidence of essential hypertension among Blacks. Twenty-seven Black college students viewed three excerpts showing racist situations involving Blacks; anger-provoking, nonracist situations; and neutral situations. After each scene, BP was taken, and a mood checklist was administered. The Framingham Anger Scale and the Anger Expression Scale were administered. Analyses revealed that BP significantly increased during the presentation of racist stimuli but not of anger-provoking or neutral stimuli. Self-reports of state anger, as measured by the mood checklist, were significant for both the anger-provoking and racist stimuli. BP scores were significantly correlated to the two trait anger measures. Exposure to racist stimuli was associated with BP increases among Blacks. Such cumulative exposure to racism may have important implications for the etiology of essential hypertension.     

Church-based social interactions and psychotic experiences among Black Americans: findings from the National Survey of American Life

Religious attendance has generally been salutary for mental health, though recent evidence suggests that church attendance has no significant relation with psychotic experiences. This study will examine how various types of church-based social interactions might be related to psychotic experiences. We analysed data from the National Survey of American Life –a representative sample of Black Americans in the United States –and used multivariable logistic regression to examine associations between seven church-based social interaction variables and lifetime psychotic experiences. In separate models, church attendance, church member interaction, and closeness to church members were not significantly associated with psychotic experiences, while greater emotional support, negative social interactions, providing help to other church members and receiving help from fellow church members were associated with increased odds of reporting psychotic experiences. But in a fully adjusted model including all church-based social interaction variables, only negative church interactions and giving help to church members were significantly associated with psychotic experiences. Church-based social interactions did not protect against psychotic experiences, and in some cases increased risk. Future studies should explore why the deleterious aspects of social interactions prevail over the beneficial ones.     

Black students' experiences of “acceptable” racism at a UK university

Our research, conducted with 30 Black students at a predominantly White institution, used mixed qualitative methods to investigate Black students' sense-making of experiences that signalled their non-belonging. All participants experienced both overt and covert racism including the n-word, racist humour, and negative stereotyping; and this occurred in public and intimate spaces. Our reflexive thematic analysis centred on interactional dynamics that can explain how racism on campus is rendered acceptable; and how and why this is consequential for how Black students can act. We found that White students' practices of “acceptable” racism entailed the denial of responsibility and the privileging of White experiences to deflect responsibility. Importantly, these devices signal that the use of racist discourses does not always arise from unconscious bias or naivety. The perceived power dynamics whereby White students decide who belongs and what is acceptable contributed to Black students' inability to act on their own terms.     

Reactions of African American Students to the George Zimmerman Trial: Co-Rumination and Thought Intrusions as Mediators

We document how prior experiences with racism, sequentially mediated by co-rumination about racial problems with a friend and thought intrusions, are associated with negative reactions to a racially charged event—the fatal shooting of Trayvon Martin by George Zimmerman and the subsequent trial and acquittal of Mr. Zimmerman. African Americans’ prior experiences with racial discrimination predicted more co-rumination about racial problems with a friend. In turn, co-rumination was associated with more thought intrusions about the trial, leading to more negative affect and less forgiveness for Zimmerman. Co-rumination about racism and worrisome thinking about high-profile race-related events may amplify concern about racism for a frequent target of racial discrimination, lowering the threshold for negative psychological reactions to racist acts (including acts of violence) that may happen to other African Americans or to oneself.     

社会支持与大学生抑郁的关系:一个有调节的中介模型

为考察社会支持、社交焦虑、一般自我效能感和抑郁之间的关系,采用社会支持评定量表、社交焦虑量表、一般自我效能感量表以及抑郁自评量表对640名大学生进行调查。研究显示:(1)社交焦虑在社会支持与大学生抑郁之间起部分中介作用;(2)一般自我效能感在社会支持—社交焦虑—抑郁这一中介过程中的后半路径起调节作用。     

Development,Acceptability, and Effectiveness of an Acceptance-Based Behavioral Stress/Anxiety Management Workshop for University Students

College is a critical time in which individuals experience transition and stress, and may experience subthreshold or clinical symptoms of anxiety and depression. In addition, educational contexts offer a unique opportunity to serve the needs of a diverse group of students who may experience additional stressors related to experiences with discrimination; acculturative stress; financial strain; and balancing family, work, and school demands. Therefore, college appears to be an ideal time for students to learn about evidence-based skills to use in response to anxiety and depression.However, there are multiple barriers that may make it less likely that evidence-based skills and services are available to or utilized by students, including lack of funding and services available on campus, as well as concerns about mental health stigma. This study examines the preliminary acceptability and effectiveness of an acceptance-based behavioral stress/anxiety management workshop for university students on a diverse urban campus. Results indicate that participants found the workshop to be acceptable and helpful. Mixed-effect regression models examining symptom and impairment measures at preworkshop, 1-week follow-up, and 4-week follow-up showed a significant effect for time on anxious arousal, general anxiety symptoms, and social anxiety, but no significant effect for time on impairment. Implications and future directions for mindfulness and acceptance-based approaches in educational contexts are discussed.     

To Flourish or Languish,that is the question: Exploring the mental health profiles of Danish elite athletes

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was (a) to investigate mental well-being and the prevalence of anxiety and depressive symptoms in Danish male and female elite athletes, (b) to identify latent profiles in athletes based on their mental health and ill health, and (c) to examine whether the different profiles vary in selected protective and risk factors concerning mental health.MethodsA total of 612 Danish athletes (M = 18.99, SD = 4.29) from 18 different sports completed an online version of the Holistic Athlete Mental Health Survey that assessed well-being, depression, and anxiety together with potential risk and protective factors (e.g., injuries, stress, sleep, social support, sport environment).ResultsOverall, 13.9% of athletes reported moderate or severe anxiety symptoms while 21.1% reported moderate or severe depressive symptoms. Female athletes had a significantly higher prevalence of anxiety and depressive symptoms and lower mental well-being scores than male athletes. Through a latent profile analysis, three distinctive mental health profiles (flourishing, moderate mental health, languishing) were discovered. MANOVA following Kruskal-Wallis tests revealed substantial differences between these profiles regarding their perception of social support, sport environment, and stressors from different life domains.Conclusions: Danish elite athletes display similar levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms as the Danish general population. Flourishing athletes report lower stress levels, receive higher support from the private and sport domain, and perceive their sport environment as more supportive than athletes who are languishing. A tailored approach is proposed to support athletes' mental health.     

Disruptions of social relationships accentuate the association between emotional distress and menstrual pain in young women.

This study examined the effects of social support on dysmenorrhea and whether social support moderates the relationship between negative emotions and painful symptoms. Women (N = 184) completed questionnaires on menstrual symptoms, depression, anxiety, and social networks. Depression and anxiety were strongly associated with menstrual pain. Women who no longer had access to their prior support providers manifested more symptoms than did women with stable social relations. In addition, this disruption in their social networks moderated the relationship between distress and menstrual pain. Results indicate that loss of social support is a significant contributor to menstrual symptoms and point to the importance of considering specific aspects of social support in studying its effect on health.     

Anticipatory Anxiety in the Treatment of Combat Veterans with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Combat veterans have experienced a transformational process during war zone deployment, including emotional, cognitive, and sensory processing changes. They also return entrenched in military expectations of conduct and behavior. These changes result in anticipatory anxiety that makes it difficult to reintegrate into the civilian world, and are related to symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The PTSD Recovery Program at the McGuire Veterans Affairs Medical Center (VAMC) is a manualized treatment that focuses on the personal and daily experiences of combat veterans rather than exposure to traumatic memories. Program evaluation data demonstrated significant reduction in PTSD symptoms and improvements in general self-efficacy and adaptive behaviors. Results support the PTSD Recovery Program as an effective treatment that enhances readjustment to civilian life.     

Core Dimensions of Personality Broadly Account for the Link from Perceived Social Support to Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety

Specific personality traits and poor social support are risk factors for anxiety and depression. Little work, however, has considered the effects of social support and personality on these aspects of psychopathology simultaneously. We examined whether perceived social support mediates the effects of core personality domains on symptoms of anxiety and depression. Measures of personality (based on the Five‐Factor Model [FFM]), perceived social support, and symptoms of depression and anxiety were collected in a large Dutch adult population‐based sample (n = 555), and, except for depression symptoms, in an independent U.S. adult population‐based sample (n = 511). Path modeling was used to test the effects of FFM traits on symptoms of depression and anxiety, with and without the mediation of perceived social support. Social support showed no link to symptoms of anxiety and only modest links to symptoms of depression when controlling for the FFM traits. Neuroticism had the strongest effect on symptoms of both depression and anxiety, with Extraversion also showing links to symptoms of depression. Social support has limited influence on symptoms of depression, and no effects on anxiety, over and above the effects of personality. Links between social support and anxiety/depression may largely reflect influences of Neuroticism and Extraversion.     

Oppressive Things*

In analyzing oppressive systems like racism, social theorists have articulated accounts of the dynamic interaction and mutual dependence between psychological components, such as individuals’ patterns of thought and action, and social components, such as formal institutions and informal interactions. We argue for the further inclusion of physical components, such as material artifacts and spatial environments. Drawing on socially situated and ecologically embedded approaches in the cognitive sciences, we argue that physical components of racism are not only shaped by, but also shape psychological and social components of racism. Indeed, while our initial focus is on racism and racist things, we contend that our framework is also applicable to other oppressive systems, including sexism, classism, and ableism. This is because racist things are part of a broader class of oppressive things, which are material artifacts and spatial environments that are in congruence with an oppressive system.