社会层级的内隐刻板印象：权力与地位的不同作用

采用探测词再认范式,考察社会层级的内隐刻板印象。结果发现,在能力推理上,无论地位高低,个体对高权力推理为积极的反应时显著长于消极,对低权力推理为消极的反应时显著长于积极;在热情推理上,无论权力高低,个体对高地位推理为积极的反应时显著长于消极,对低地位推理为消极的反应时显著长于积极。这表明,权力和地位在热情和能力维度的刻板印象中起着不同的作用,其中权力正向预测能力,地位正向预测热情。     

刻板印象提升与刻板印象促进

刻板印象提升指个体意识到外群体具有消极刻板印象, 而产生与受诋毁的外群体向下的社会比较, 以提高个体自我效能感和动机, 进而提高表现; 刻板印象促进是积极刻板印象被激活后的积极结果, 指当个体处在他们的积极刻板印象身份被激活的情境中, 表现上升的一种现象。在刻板印象提升与刻板印象促进概念论述的基础上, 重点探讨了调节变量和结果影响这两种联系, 并从相关概念、被试要求和心理机制这三方面论述了这两者的区别。最后, 指出未来研究应加强对二者的关注, 消除其在概念上的混淆, 开展相关心理与神经机制的研究, 以及结合刻板印象阻抗进行探讨。     

阅读理解中的代词加工:先行词的距离与性别刻板印象的作用

采用眼动技术,本研究探讨了阅读理解中代词的加工机制.读者阅读包含代词的文本,代词的性别与先行词的性别刻板印象一致或违背,同时其和先行词间的距离或远或近,记录被试阅读文本的眼动轨迹.结果发现,与一致条件相比,违背条件的加工时间更长.当代词和先行词间距离较近时,一致性效应在关键代词区的反映早期加工的眼动指标上即出现,而当二者间距离较远时,一致性效应在更后的位置(代词后那一区域)出现,并且只出现在反映晚期加工的眼动指标上.此外,与远距离一致条件相比,近距离一致条件下代词后那一区域的阅读时间更长.上述结果表明,性别刻板印象以及距离在代词加工皆发挥重要作用,而且性别刻板印象产生的影响在时程上因距离的不同而不同.这一结果在一定程度上为语言理解的交互作用理论提供了证据.     

基于面孔知觉的刻板印象激活两阶段模型

从个体建构研究视角出发, 考察了基于面孔知觉的刻板印象激活过程。实验一比较了性别分类判断、启动范式以及同时呈现范式下刻板印象匹配性判断三者所用反应时的差异, 结果发现, 后者显著地大于前二者, 且等于前二者之和; 面孔倒置呈现使同时呈现范式下刻板印象匹配判断的反应时和错误率显著增大, 但其对启动范式中刻板印象匹配判断的反应时和错误率没有影响。实验二基于同时呈现范式, 通过不同程度的面孔变形来操纵性别类别提取的难度, 更精确地探讨了基于面孔知觉的社会类别信息提取过程对刻板印象激活的影响, 结果表明, 随着从面孔中提取类别信息难度的增加, 刻板印象激活所用的反应时也逐渐增大。研究结果证实了研究者所提出的刻板印象激活两阶段模型, 即基于面孔知觉的社会类别提取阶段和刻板印象信息激活阶段, 证实社会类别激活和刻板印象信息激活是两个分离的过程, 以社会类别信息提取为目的的面孔知觉对刻板印象的激活有显著影响。     

刻板印象错误知觉任务:区分刻板印象激活与刻板印象应用的新方法

刻板印象错误知觉任务(Stereotype Misperception Task,简称SMT)是一种能对刻板印象激活和刻板印象应用进行有效区分的研究范式,对应的多项式模型能对二者各自贡献量大小进行测算与评估。依托对二者关系的解构,介绍了SMT的操作程序、原理、多项式模型及其数据分析,比较了SMT和情感错误归因程序(AMP)以及四重模型的内在关联和本质区别,展望了未来的发展方向。     

关于性别刻板印象的初步调查

性别刻板印象是一种重要的社会刻板印象。我们在 3 80名大学生中作了性别刻板印象的初步调查 ,并考察了性别和性别角色对性别刻板印象的影响。结果发现中国大学生的性别刻板印象与传统的性别观念比较一致 ,认为男性更坚强能干 ,女性更被动顺从 ,且这一印象不因性别和性别角色而改变。但男女被试的性别刻板印象仍存在明显差异。不同性别角色被试之间的性别刻板印象也有差异。总体而言 ,性别对性别刻板印象的影响比性别角色对性别刻板印象的影响大。     

Stereotype threat reduces false recognition when older adults are forewarned

Exposing older adults to ageing stereotypes can reduce their memory for studied information—a phenomenon attributed to stereotype threat—but little is known about stereotype effects on false memory. Here, we assessed ageing stereotype effects on the Deese-Roediger-McDermott false memory illusion. Older adults studied lists of semantically associated words, and then read a passage about age-related memory decline (threat condition) or an age-neutral passage (control condition). They then took a surprise memory test with a warning to avoid false recognition of non-studied associates. Relative to the control condition, activating stereotype threat reduced the recognition of both studied and non-studied words, implicating a conservative criterion shift for associated test words. These results indicate that stereotype threat can reduce false memory, and they help to clarify mixed results from prior ageing research. Consistent with the regulatory focus hypothesis, threat motivates older adults to respond more conservatively when error-prevention is emphasised at retrieval.     

刻板印象激活效应对社会分类的影响

采用改进的flanker范式,探讨了刻板印象激活效应对社会分类的影响,并考察了匹配刺激出现概率对刻板印象激活效应影响社会分类的调节作用。实验一发现,性别刻板印象激活后,按性别分类时,匹配刺激中和不匹配刺激中面孔分类反应时之间的差异是显著的,但按年龄分类时,二者间的差异不显著。实验二表明,匹配刺激出现概率为80%时和50%时,匹配刺激中和不匹配刺激中面孔分类反应时之间的差异是显著的;但当匹配刺激出现概率为20%时,二者间的差异不显著。结果表明,刻板印象激活效应对与该刻板印象对应的社会分类有显著的影响,对与该刻板印象无关社会分类不会产生影响。刻板印象激活效应对社会分类的影响受匹配刺激出现概率的调节。     

Men in pink collars: Stereotype threat and disengagement among male teachers and child protection workers

Male employees are a traditionally advantaged group, but when working in a female‐dominated industry they may be vulnerable to negative gender stereotypes. The current research examined stereotype threat among men in two traditionally feminine jobs. Study 1 measured stereotype threat among primary school teachers and found that men experienced more stereotype threat than women, and that feelings of stereotype threat were related to negative job attitudes for men but not women. Study 2 manipulated the direction of social comparisons to elicit stereotype threat among male child protection workers. For men but not women, upward social comparisons with a successful feminine target elicited stereotype threat. In turn, stereotype threat was associated with intentions to resign and feeling expected to perform stereotypic masculine work tasks. These results suggest that despite their advantaged status, men in pink‐collar jobs are susceptible to workplace stereotype threat.     

民族刻板印象威胁效应

Steele和Aronson (1995)最早提出刻板印象威胁的概念,指出这种威胁使个体担心自己会验证所属群体的消极刻板印象.民族刻板印象威胁表现为个体行为表现下降并影响民族交往.民族刻板印象威胁效应的主要机制是工作记忆受损和不认同.通过提供内群体榜样和进行非评价性测试,可以有效地减轻刻板印象威胁效应.未来研究要准确界定种族、族群和民族的概念,考察民族刻板印象威胁与性别刻板印象威胁的区别,研究不同民族的刻板印象威胁效应.     

Stereotype threat can reduce older adults' memory errors

Stereotype threat often incurs the cost of reducing the amount of information that older adults accurately recall. In the current research, we tested whether stereotype threat can also benefit memory. According to the regulatory focus account of stereotype threat, threat induces a prevention focus in which people become concerned with avoiding errors of commission and are sensitive to the presence or absence of losses within their environment. Because of this, we predicted that stereotype threat might reduce older adults' memory errors. Results were consistent with this prediction. Older adults under stereotype threat had lower intrusion rates during free-recall tests (Experiments 1 and 2). They also reduced their false alarms and adopted more conservative response criteria during a recognition test (Experiment 2). Thus, stereotype threat can decrease older adults' false memories, albeit at the cost of fewer veridical memories, as well.     

Small Change Makes a Big Splash: The Role of Working Self-Concept in the Effects of Stereotype Threat on Memory

Assuming that the principle of an active-self account holds true in real life, priming certain constructs could selectively activate a working self-concept, which in turn guides behavior. The current study involved two experiments that examined the relationships between stereotypic identity, working self-concept, and memory performance in older adults. Specifically, Study 1 tested whether a stereotype threat can affect older adults' working self-concept and memory performance. A modified Stroop color naming task and a separate recognition task showed that a stereotype threat prime altered the activation of the working self-concept and deteriorated the older adults' memory performance. Additionally, the working self-concept mediated the effect of stereotype threat on memory performance. Accordingly, we designed Study 2 to assess whether priming different identities can alter the working self-concept of the elderly and buffer the stereotype threat effect on memory performance. The results not only were the same as Study 1 but also revealed that activating multiple identities could mitigate the stereotype threat. These results support an active-self account and the efficacy of stereotype threat intervention. This intervention strategy may be able to be used in real situations to help the elderly alleviate stereotype threats and memory impairment.     

刻板印象激活的无意图性及其大脑神经活动特征

采用启动Stroop范式, 对刻板印象激活的无意图性及其大脑神经活动特征进行了探讨。操纵了启动和“无启动”条件以及与启动所激活的刻板印象一致、冲突和无关的3类靶子词, 记录了36名大学生被试对靶子词进行颜色判别的行为反应和脑电图(EEG, electroencephalogram)。结果发现：(1)“无启动”条件下对3类靶子的反应时基本一致; 启动条件下对一致靶子做出颜色判别的反应时显著快于对冲突靶子的, 对无关靶子的反应时介于两者之间。(2)“无启动”条件下无关靶子诱发的N400波幅最大--显著大于一致和冲突靶子诱发的, 后两者诱发的N400无差异; 启动条件下一致靶子诱发的N400波幅显著小于冲突和无关靶子诱发的N400波幅, 无关靶子诱发的N400波幅也小于冲突靶子诱发的N400波幅。这表明刻板印象激活是一个发生在知觉后加工阶段的具有无意图性的自动化加工过程, 刻板印象激活效应具有抑制冲突信息加工同时促进一致信息加工的“双刃剑”模式, N400可以作为考察这一认知过程特征的电生理学指标。     

印象形成中交叉刻板印象的加工机制

以大学生作为被试,旨在探究：在交叉刻板印象加工过程中,是否存在某一单维刻板印象的加工优势效应？如果存在,靶子熟悉度的差异是否会影响单维刻板印象的加工优势效应？该单维刻板印象加工优势效应是否还会受到其他单维刻板印象加工的调节。研究结果表明：（1）在对具有性别-年龄组合而成的交叉刻板印象的人群进行判断时,通过面孔进行启动,发现在不同的条件下分别存在性别单维刻板印象和年龄单维刻板印象的加工优势效应,即年轻男性或女性面孔的性别特征较年龄特征更容易得到加工和提取,老年男性或女性面孔的年龄特征较性别特征更具有加工优势。而在范畴词汇启动下,老年男性或女性词汇启动下的年龄特征较性别特征更具有加工优势。（2）熟悉性会影响单维刻板印象的加工优势,即在年轻被试感知面孔或范畴词汇时,其对老年男性或女性靶子间击中率的差异要显著大于对年轻男性或女性的靶子间击中率的差异。换言之,年轻被试感知老年人靶子的性别与年龄间的差异要显著大于年轻人靶子,出现自我参照现象。（3）在交叉刻板印象加工中,同时存在的各类单维刻板印象加工是彼此削弱的,具有优势加工效应的刻板印象的加工会受到非优势刻板印象加工的抑制。（4）在交叉刻板印象加工中,优势刻板印象加工会受到其相对刻板印象加工的削弱。     

Adaptive memory: Stereotype activation is not enough

Studies have shown that survival processing leads to superior memorability. The aim of the present study was to examine whether this survival recall advantage might result from stereotype activation. To test this hypothesis, we conducted a pilot study and two experiments in which participants were primed with stereotypes (Experiment 1, professor and elderly person; Experiment 2, survival-stereotype). In Experiment 1, 120 undergraduates were randomly assigned to a survival, professor stereotype, elderly person stereotype, or moving scenario and rated words for their relevance to the imagined scenario. In Experiment 2, 75 undergraduates were given a survival, survival-stereotype (based on our pilot study), or moving scenario. Both experiments showed that survival processing leads to a greater recall advantage over the stereotype groups and control group. These data indicate that the mere activation of stereotypes cannot explain the survival recall advantage.     

Does collaborative remembering reduce false memories?

Collaborative remembering refers to recall by groups rather than by an individual. Three experiments investigated whether, relative to individual remembering, collaborative remembering decreased correct recall and false recall using the Deese‐Roediger‐McDermott paradigm. Participants were first asked to study and recall five lists of 15 words that were each semantically associated with a critical non‐presented word. Half the participants recalled the words by themselves, while the remaining half were assigned to pairs and collaboratively recalled the words. In Experiment 1, pairs produced the same number of false or correct words as individuals who were tested alone. In Experiment 2, the interpersonal closeness of the groups was also manipulated: friends and pairs who were not friends were assigned to the collaborative groups. Both friends and non‐friends produced fewer false or correct words than individuals. Experiment 3, in which the performance of the individuals and non‐friend pairs were compared using a recall test of the same 75 words as the previous experiments, replicated the results of Experiment 2. These results are discussed in terms of the retrieval‐strategy disruption.     

广告中性别刻板印象的信息加工方式

通过操纵注意方式、刻板印象的启动方式及被试的刻板化状态,探讨了广告中性别刻板印象信息加工的方式和特点。结果表明：（1） 广告中性别刻板印象信息的加工是自动化加工和控制性加工共同作用的结果,刻板化启动引起更多的自动化加工,反刻板化启动引起更多的控制性加工;（2）注意方式影响广告中性别刻板印象信息的控制性加工而不影响其自动化加工,集中注意时控制性加工的贡献最大;（3）对于广告中的性别刻板化信息,刻板化程度高的人具有更严格的判断标准。     

刻板印象信息表征的模式及其功能

从积极、中性、消极三种不同效价的刻板印象出发,采用回忆—练习范式和再认范式探讨了刻板印象表征中的信息组织模式及其功能。研究表明,不论刻板印象的效价如何,刻板印象的内容都是按照效价一致的原则组织的,即积极信息与积极信息紧密的组织在一起,消极信息与消极信息紧密的组织在一起。这种组织信息的模式在社会认知过程中起着一种平行的促进—抑制作用,从而使人们只需利用较少的认知资源便迅速对某一靶子形成一种评价一致的印象     

Gender Stereotype Activation versus Lexical Semantic Activation: An ERP Study

It is an open question whether social stereotype activation can be distinguished from nonsocial semantic activation. To address this question, gender stereotype activation (GSA) and lexical semantic activation (LSA) were directly compared. EEGs were recorded in 20 participants as they identified the congruence between prime-target word pairs under four different conditions (stereotype congruent, stereotype incongruent, semantic congruent, and semantic incongruent). We found that congruent targets elicited faster and more accurate responses and reduced N400 amplitudes irrespective of priming category types. The N400 congruency effect (i.e., the difference between incongruity and congruity) started earlier and had greater amplitude for GSA than for LSA. Moreover, gender category priming induced a smaller N400 and a larger P600 than lexical category priming. These findings suggest that the brain is not only sensitive to both stereotype and semantic violation in the post-perceptual processing stage but can also differentiate these two information processes. Further, the findings suggest superior processing (i.e., faster and deeper processing) when the words are associated with social category and convey stereotype knowledge.     

广告中性别刻板印象信息的内隐效应

尝试采用以图片为实验材料及不同步骤的IAT程序测量广告中性别刻板印象的内隐效应及其操作强度,结果表明：（1）广告中的性别刻板印象具有很强的内隐效应;（2）高刻板化程度者具有更强的内隐性别刻板效应;（3）当刺激材料为图片时,不同的IAT程序测得的内隐性别刻板效应不同。