当代西方道德人格研究的两类取向

道德人格研究是西方道德心理学的新主题,主要有两类取向：特质取向和社会认知取向。特质取向把道德人格理解为与道德有关的人格特质,对道德榜样的自然概念和真实道德榜样的人格特征进行了大量研究。社会认知取向以社会认知图式、知识结构和认知－情感机制来解释道德人格,揭示了个体内部动态的心理过程。未来的道德人格研究要强调两类取向的结合,加强发展过程和影响因素研究,并注重多水平与多学科的整合。     

西方社会价值取向的研究历程与发展趋势

作为一种相对稳定的人格特质,社会价值取向指个体对于自己和他人结果分配的特定偏好。西方社会价值取向的研究经历了从双维模型到整合模型的发展。这些研究证实了实验室情境以及现实情境下社会价值取向对个体的行为决策和社会认知的影响。人际取向命题的提出是该领域的最新理论进展,情境因素和平等取向在未来研究中将得到更多的关注     

敌意解释偏向与攻击的关系

敌意解释偏向是一种认知加工偏向, 指个体将模棱两可信息以敌意的方式进行解释的倾向, 它会对个体的攻击行为产生影响。攻击也会影响个体的敌意解释偏向:作为一种人格特质, 高攻击性使个体更容易产生敌意解释偏向; 作为一种行为反应, 攻击对敌意解释偏向具有发展和强化作用。敌意解释偏向和攻击之间可能存在循环关系。两者关系会受到性别、年龄以及人格特点等因素影响。未来研究需要改进敌意解释偏向与攻击的测量工具, 使测量更为直接、客观; 拓展两者不同亚类之间的交互研究, 以全面系统地了解两者之间的关系; 深入探究情绪在敌意解释偏向与攻击行为关系中的作用; 整合信息加工过程, 探究它们的交互作用对攻击行为的影响等。     

社会同步对内隐攻击性的弱化作用: 影响注意偏向的眼动证据

社会同步作为“社会粘合剂”,能够对社会性产生明显的影响。本研究旨在考察社会同步对内隐攻击性弱化作用的认知机制。研究将45名内隐攻击性水平不同的被试随机分配为三组,完成在模棱两可情境下基于SIP模型的对敌意线索和非敌意线索的第一遍注视。研究结果进一步支持了解释优先模型。同时也表明,社会同步能够在一定程度上减弱高内隐攻击性个体的攻击性倾向,而不会对低内隐攻击性水平的个体产生负面影响。     

初中男生个体攻击性与群体攻击性的差异

运用实验法和问卷法对118名初中男学生进行攻击性的研究.比较了四种不同类型的攻击行为.包括群体之间、个体之间、群体与个体之间、个体与群体之间.结果显示:群体无论是作为攻击来源还是攻击目标都能起到增加攻击行为的情境作用;个体之间与群体之间在攻击性方面有显著差异;群体之间相互作用时表现出的攻击性远高于个体之间相互作用时表现出的攻击性:个体与群体相互作用时比个体之间相互作用时表现出更高的攻击性.     

儿童攻击行为的短期追踪干预研究:从社会信息加工的角度

以社会信息加工模型(Social Information-Processing Model,简称SIP)为理论依据设计社会认知干预方案,将被试(包括132名攻击性儿童)分为实验组、安慰剂(阅读)组和控制组进行短期追踪干预研究,在此基础上考察该干预方案对减少儿童的攻击行为以及提高社会信息加工能力的作用。研究结果表明:(1)该干预方案对提高攻击性儿童的社会信息加工能力有明显的即时效果和持续效果,具体表现为该方案有效地减少了攻击性儿童的敌意归因偏见和攻击行为的产生,有助于攻击性儿童建立关系目标并正确认知攻击行为的后果;(2)班主任评定三组儿童的攻击行为显著减少,评定结果可能受到期望效应的影响。     

A型人格、自我价值感对中学生不同情境应对方式的影响

应对方式的研究存在两种不同的取向,即过程取向和特质取向。过程取向重点研究特定生活事件中个体的应对过程,探讨各类特殊事件下特定个体的应对方式特点,较少考虑人格因素的影响。目前国内外对应对方式的研究大多仍倾向于过程取向。特质取向强调个体差异或人格变量的影响。该取向研究个体是否存在个性倾向性的、相对稳定的和习惯化了的应对风格或特质。     

攻击的社会性认知学习的调节

这项研究探索了小学儿童的攻击与影响儿童是否采取攻击行为的社会认知的两个等级的联系.给攻击性和非攻击性的儿童(平均年龄为11.3岁)提供二个调查表,让他们进行回答.一个调查表是测量儿童对自己进行攻击的能力及相应的行为的认识(即自我实力的认识),而另一个调查表则测量儿童对攻击性行为会得到的奖励和惩罚的后果的认识.     

发展情境论——一种新的发展系统理论

发展情境论（Developmental Contextualism）是发展系统理论体系中的一种具有代表性的理论。该理论认为人的发展是通过发展中的个体与其所处情境间的持续交互作用实现的,个体的发展变化过程在本质上是或然渐成性的。该理论不仅更系统地概括了影响人发展的时间和空间因素,而且在交互作用观点的基础上提出了循环影响的研究取向。同时,发展情境论认为人的可塑性特点为干预个体的发展提供了可能,并进一步提出了干预的思路,即通过建立和调整个体与所处情境的拟合优度模型来实现个体和所处情境的积极发展。     

状态自恋与攻击行为——知觉到的威胁、愤怒情绪和敌意归因偏差的多重中介作用

采用2(自恋故事vs.中性故事)×2(威胁情境vs.表扬情境)的被试间设计对162名大学生的状态自恋与攻击行为的关系及其机制进行考察。结果发现:(1)与中性故事组相比,自恋故事能够显著激活被试的状态自恋水平;(2)与表扬情境相比,威胁情境中自恋激活组个体的攻击意向显著高于中性故事组,说明状态自恋激活能够显著增加个体的攻击行为;(3)状态自恋通过知觉到的威胁、愤怒情绪和敌意归因偏差间接预测攻击行为;(4)从总体上来说,知觉到的威胁既可显著直接预测攻击行为,也可通过愤怒情绪间接预测攻击行为。对自恋激活组,状态自恋可以通过影响愤怒情绪和敌意归因偏差间接影响攻击行为;对中性控制组来说,这种关系则不存在。本研究结果证实,状态自恋的激活能够显著增加个体面对消极反馈时攻击行为产生的认知情绪机制。     

Salivary testosterone and self-report aggressive and pro-social personality characteristics in men and women

Measures of salivary testosterone and the personality dimensions of aggression and pro-social behavior were obtained in 306 (155 male and 151 female) university students. Each participant provided two samples of saliva and completed ten self-report personality scales from multiple inventories. A factor analysis of the personality scales produced two factors, an aggression factor and a pro-social behavior factor. Men averaged five times the amount of salivary testosterone as women (99 pg/ml vs. 18.5 pg/ml) and rated themselves as more aggressive and less nurturant. Within each sex, testosterone was positively correlated with aggression and negatively correlated with pro-social personality. Structural equation modelling analyses suggested that a direct effect model best described the relationship between salivary testosterone and the latent personality dimensions of aggression and pro-social behavior. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

攻击性初中生的类别转变：潜在转变分析

研究采用潜在转变分析探讨了攻击性初中生的类别转变。276名初中参加了为期一年的短期纵向追踪研究,在一年中分两次报告了自己的攻击行为。用潜在转变模型分析了初二到初三时青少年的攻击类别转变,结果表明初中生有三种攻击模式。研究以潜在转变模型进一步探究了这三种攻击模式的变化,结果发现两种模式具有很强的稳定性,不同模式之间也有一定程度的转变。最后,研究探讨了攻击类别转变的影响因素,结果表明性别与友谊质量可以起到显著作用。针对实际意义,文章最后进行了讨论和总结。     

A Rorschach Study of Narcissism Defense,and Aggression in Borderline,Narcissistic, and Cluster C Personality Disorders

We examined the differences between narcissism, mode of defense, and level of aggression on the Rorschach. We also investigated differences in borderline, narcissistic, and Cluster C personality disorders by examining responses to Rorschach content variables. The Lerner Defense Scale (P. Lerner & H. Lerner, 1980), the aggressive content section of the Holt (1977) method for assessing primary process manifestations, a modified version of Exner's (1986a) Egocentricity Index, Wagner's (1965) exhibitionistic M score, and grandiosity were scored on the Rorschach protocols of 17 borderline, I7 narcissistic, and 17 Cluster C personality disorders. Borderlines were found to employ primitive defensive structures to a greater degree and severity, show more intense and overall aggression as welt as more responses on the three forms of aggression in the Holt method, and have higher levels of grandiosity. Narcissists evinced significantly higher levels of egocentricity than borderlines and higher levels of idealization than the Cluster C group. Convergent validity was found on the measures of defense and aggression, which showed a strong relationship between primitive aggression and primitive defense.     

The disguise of sobriety: unveiled by alcohol in persons with an aggressive personality

This investigation examined the factor structure of 8 well-validated self-report measures that assess traits that fall under the rubric of an "aggressive personality" and then determined how those factor(s) moderated the association between alcohol intoxication and aggression. Participants were 518 (252 men and 266 women) healthy social drinkers between 21 and 35 years of age. Following the consumption of an alcoholic or a placebo beverage, participants were tested on a laboratory aggression paradigm in which electric shocks were received from, and administered to, a fictitious opponent. Aggression was operationalized as the shock intensities and durations administered to the opponent. Results demonstrated a unidimensional factor structure for the aggressive personality traits, which were then combined into a latent variable. The aggressive personality variable moderated the alcohol-aggression relation. Specifically, alcohol was significantly more likely to increase aggression in persons with higher, compared with lower, aggressive personality scores.     

Self-control as a mechanism for controlling aggression: A study in the context of sport competition

Self-control is one of the most important structures of human personality and has been linked to a wide variety of benefits for the individual, and for society. Additionally, self-control has been consistently reported, both empirically and theoretically, as a major disposition in the regulation of aggressive behavior. Taking the advantages of the sport context as a natural environment to study human aggression, this study explored the individual differences in aggressive and anti-social behaviors as function of self-control capacity and gender. Results converged to the idea that athletes with higher levels of self-control capacity seem to be better at controlling aggression, and male athletes tend to be more aggressive. These findings not only support previous laboratory findings, but also suggest the importance of the promotion of self-control capacity as a strategy to control aggression in the domain of sport.     

Aggression in toddlers: associations with parenting and marital relations.

This study examined the relation among parenting factors, marital relations, and toddler aggression. A structured questionnaire was administered to both parents of 254 2-year-olds. The authors used correlation and hierarchical multiple regression analyses to assess the extent to which certain personality traits, drug use, parenting style, and marital conflicts were related to the toddlers' aggressive behavior. Results showed that the maternal child-rearing and parental aggression domains had a direct effect on toddler aggression. The domain of maternal child rearing also served as a mediator for the domains of marital relations, paternal child rearing, parental aggression, and parental drug use. The findings indicated that maternal child-rearing practices, personality attributes, and drug use were more important than paternal attributes in relation to toddler aggression. Implications for prevention among families at risk are discussed.     

Correlates and consequences of exposure to video game violence: hostile personality, empathy, and aggressive behavior

Research has shown that exposure to violent video games causes increases in aggression, but the mechanisms of this effect have remained elusive. Also, potential differences in short-term and long-term exposure are not well understood. An initial correlational study shows that video game violence exposure (VVE) is positively correlated with self-reports of aggressive behavior and that this relation is robust to controlling for multiple aspects of personality. A lab experiment showed that individuals low in VVE behave more aggressively after playing a violent video game than after a nonviolent game but that those high in VVE display relatively high levels of aggression regardless of game content. Mediational analyses show that trait hostility, empathy, and hostile perceptions partially account for the VVE effect on aggression. These findings suggest that repeated exposure to video game violence increases aggressive behavior in part via changes in cognitive and personality factors associated with desensitization.     

Aggression in Toddlers: Associations With Parenting and Marital Relations

This study examined the relation among parenting factors, marital relations, and toddler aggression. A structured questionnaire was administered to both parents of 254 2-year-olds. The authors used correlation and hierarchical multiple regression analyses to assess the extent to which certain personality traits, drug use, parenting style, and marital conflicts were related to the toddlers' aggressive behavior. Results showed that the maternal child-rearing and parental aggression domains had a direct effect on toddler aggression. The domain of maternal child rearing also served as a mediator for the domains of marital relations, paternal child rearing, parental aggression, and parental drug use. The findings indicated that maternal child-rearing practices, personality attributes, and drug use were more important than paternal attributes in relation to toddler aggression. Implications for prevention among families at risk are discussed.     

Understanding the Complexity of Human Aggression: Affective,Cognitive, and Social Dimensions of Individual Differences in Propensity Toward Aggression

Human aggression is a complex phenomenon operating at multiple levels. Converging evidence distinguishes ‘hot’ aggression, impulsive and emotionally-centered, from ‘cool’ aggression, cognitively based and instrumental. The correspondence of these aggressive response patterns with individual differences in Propensity toward Aggression was investigated. Our data (from 477 Italian adults) map ten of these aggression indicators into the personality space defined by the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality. The quadrant containing most of these variables is defined by Emotional Instability (the negative pole of Emotional Stability) and Hostility (the negative pole of Friendliness). Factor analysis uncovered two factors that accounted for nearly 60 percent of the variance in Propensity toward Aggression: Emotional Responsivity and Positive Evaluation of Violence. Practical implications for issues of health and disease, violence, and interventions for different forms of adults' and children's aggression are outlined.