Book Reviews

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to identify what I take to be the main conceptual problem in Lewis’ semantics for counterfactuals when the Limit Assumption (LA) is not satisfied, what I call the Discrimination Problem (DP), and to present and discuss a modification of Lewis’ semantics that aims at solving DP. First, I outline Lewis’ semantics, highlighting the aspects that will be relevant for our discussion. Second, I present DP and discuss it with a heuristic example. Third, I present the new proposal and comment some formal consequences and the objections they give rise to. Fourth, I present an allegedly equivalent version of the proposal and discuss the difference between counterfactuals and strict conditionals. Finally, I defend that the two proposals are different and argue for the first one as the best way of capturing two intuitions that seem in conflict when the LA is not satisfied. I conclude with a dilemma: either the proposal here defended works or LA is inescapable. Thus, if the proposal doesn’t work, the paper must then be considered as an indirect defense of the Limit Assumption.     

RESPONSE TO PAPERS FOR “ETHNOGRAPHY,ANTHROPOLOGY, AND COMPARATIVE RELIGIOUS ETHICS” FOCUS

The Center for the Study of World Religions (CSWR) project represented here through papers by Thomas Lewis, Aaron Stalnaker, Hans Lucht, and Lee Yearley (with responses) was motivated by the judgment that the trend toward a focus on virtue ethics, with attendant concern for techniques of forming selves, creates an opportunity for a dialogue with ethnographers. I argue that the CSWR essays neglect social and institutional considerations, as well as overdrawing the distinction between “formalist” and virtue approaches to the study of comparative ethics.     

3～5岁儿童表面与结构相似性类比推理的实验研究

采用经典类比推理问题对3~5岁儿童表面相似性与结构相似性类比推理能力进行了实验研究。结果发现:(1)表面相似性与结构相似性对儿童解决类比问题的影响不同。一般来说,前者更有利于3~5岁儿童类比问题的解决;(2)儿童解决表面相似性与结构相似性类比问题的能力随年龄增长而发展,但发展趋势不同。在表面相似性问题方面,4岁以前发展较慢,而4岁以后的发展较快;在结构相似性问题方面,4岁以前发展较快,而4岁以后的发展较慢。4岁是儿童解决类比推理问题能力的转折点;(3)在本实验条件下,工作记忆负荷对儿童解决表面相似性类比问题与结构相似性类比问题的影响不显著;(4)类比映射关系提示能促进儿童解决两类类比问题,但对不同年龄儿童的作用是非线性的。     

Ceteris Paribus Conditionals and Comparative Normalcy

Our understanding of subjunctive conditionals has been greatly enhanced through the use of possible world semantics and, more precisely, by the idea that they involve variably strict quantification over possible worlds. I propose to extend this treatment to ceteris paribus conditionals – that is, conditionals that incorporate a ceteris paribus or ‘other things being equal’ clause. Although such conditionals are commonly invoked in scientific theorising, they traditionally arouse suspicion and apprehensiveness amongst philosophers. By treating ceteris paribus conditionals as a species of variably strict conditional I hope to shed new light upon their content and their logic.     

表面相似性对数量关系和相对大小关系理解的影响

研究采用数量关系匹配任务和相对大小关系匹配任务,通过高表面相似性、低表面相似性和交叉映射三种实验条件,探讨表面相似性对儿童和成人数量与相对大小关系理解的影响。研究一对37名4岁儿童进行三次每次间隔半年的追踪测查,结果表明4~5岁间儿童理解数量关系和相对大小关系的水平有显著提高;4岁儿童对数量关系的理解受到表面相似性的影响,4~5岁儿童对相对大小关系的理解受到表面相似性的影响。研究二探究44名成人数量和相对大小关系理解的特点,结果发现,成人完成两种关系匹配任务时也受到表面相似性的影响。     

特征归纳的关联相似性模型

作者提出特征归纳的关联相似性模型,用以描述以归纳特征的关联特征相似性为基础的归纳推理,把归纳推理中相似性和关联知识统一整合起来。该模型认为归纳强度主要取决于归纳特征与关联特征的关联强度和关联特征的相似性程度的乘积,归纳信心主要取决于关联强度,从而分离归纳信心和归纳强度。以大学生为被试的两个实验的主要结果支持关联相似性模型的主要预测。关联相似性模型能够描述解释以关联特征相似性为基础的归纳推理现象,比以往的归纳理论具有更大的解释能力和解释范围     

A Brief Delay Decreases Perceived Similarity and Improves Discrimination

A same-different discrimination between the colors of 2 halves of a circle was poorer when the halves were viewed simultaneously than when the delay between viewing them was 33 ms. The simultaneous discrimination also produced a poor performance on different stimuli relative to same stimuli in comparison to the successive discrimination. Poor-on-different performance should indicate high perceived similarity. The simultaneous colors were also judged as more similar. The delay did not alter the physical similarity of the colors. Thus, the delay may have decreased assimilation (perceived similarity) and thereby improved discrimination, in support of the hypothesis that perceived similarity frequently affects discrimination.     

Similarity and reluctance to trade

Previous research has shown that after decision makers are endowed with an object, they are reluctant to trade it for an alternative item. This endowment effect can be explained by loss aversion, the tendency to weight losses more heavily than gains. Consequently, there is no reluctance to trade when no true loss is involved. Four studies investigated whether reluctance to trade declines when the trade involves less of a loss—specifically, when one item is traded for another very similar item. Three experiments did not reveal a relation between willingness to trade and the similarity between the two items being traded. A fourth experiment, however, indicated that subjects were quite willing to trade for an identical item, less willing to trade for a similar item, and even less willing to trade for a dissimilar item. Thus, reluctance to trade decreased as the similarity between the endowment and the alternative increased. This result suggests that loss aversion is a function not only of the item being lost but also of the trade itself—that is, of the relation between the two items being traded. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

婚恋关系中的相似性匹配及争议

婚恋匹配涉及身体特征、社会人口统计学特征、个性心理等方面,有相似性匹配和互补性匹配两种假说,但相似匹配的证据远多于互补。针对感知相似与实际相似的作用、相似性匹配与婚恋质量的关系、以及相似匹配的优势地位与适宜性等争议,分析了导致相似性匹配争议的原因。未来应致力于深化研究内容以建立婚恋匹配理论模型,实现测评方法的多样化、测量指标和工具的科学化,确保相似性计算和统计分析方法的严谨性,并加强婚恋匹配的本土化和跨文化研究。     

归类的相似性对比模型研究综述

本文阐述了近期归类中的相似性对比模型的研究,首先介绍了相似性对比的空间模型、基于特征的对比模型以及最近提出的结构匹配模型,并且详细阐述结构匹配模型观点以及它的应用方面的研究,旨在抛砖引玉,引起更多的人们来关注本领域的研究与发展。     

人格相似性与关系质量的关系：单向视角

温州两所大学的199个大学生在人际形容词量表上对自己的人际特质进行评定,并对自己选定的一个关系对象进行评定,感知与选定对象的人格相似性,同时评定与该对象的关系质量。根据自我报告和评定对象计算出假定相似性。对关系质量的分层回归分析得到人际特质两个维度的交互效应均为正,即表现出假定相似相吸的效应趋势,亲和性维度显著;相关显示假定的相似性和感知的相似性与关系质量均呈中等程度相关;路径分析表明感知的相似性中介假定相似性与关系质量的关系。     

图形相似比较中的加工模型:特征与结构的作用

本研究采用单一目标映射技术(one-shot mapping)设计实验考察了相似比较中的加工模型。实验结果表明:相似等级的判定对映射任务中结构映射没有显著性影响。相似加工不一定表现为基于结构的加工,基于特征的加工和基于结构的加工是相似加工中两种并行的加工模式。在反应时方面,基于结构的加工的反应时比基于特征的加工的反应时更长。     

知觉信息先期呈现下两可图的命名和相似判断

在实物图片或轮廓图先期呈现的条件下研究了6岁、9岁、12岁及成人被试对两可图形的命名或相似判断。结果表明：（1）命名项目或相似判断与线索项目有关时,各年龄被试对判断项的命名或相似判断均表现出与线索项目一致的倾向。（2）轮廓图作为线索项目时．命名或相似判断反应时较长;实物作为线索项目时,命名或相似判断反应时较短。无关项目作为为线索项目时．被试命名或相似判断的反应时居中;命名项目或相似判断项目均与线索项目一致时反应时较短;命名项目或相似判断项目均与线索项目不一致时反应时延长。（3）被试命名或相似判断的反应时随其年龄的增长而下降,6岁和9岁儿童的反应时较长;12岁儿童的反应时较短;成人的反应时最短。     

Similarity,multiple estimations,and the anchoring effect

This paper compares the Selective Accessibility and Scale Distortion theories of anchoring as explanations for anchoring tasks involving (1) perceived dissimilarity between comparison and estimation objects and (2) successive estimation tasks. We begin by describing the two theories of anchoring and what each would predict for these conditions. Two studies are presented in which multiple estimates are made following a single comparison task and the effect sizes of these estimates are correlated to operationalizations of similarity. In the first study, the stimuli varied with respect to how well they fit within an existing category reasonably familiar to the participant population: aircraft. In the second study, the stimuli varied with respect to external features that did not define the category: the brand and location of hotels. In both studies, we find that the anchoring effect size has a positive correlation with the semantic similarity between the comparison and estimation objects, a finding consistent with Selective Accessibility.     

入世出世心理对压力和心理健康的中介作用

以319名大一学生为被试研究入世出世心理对压力和心理健康的中介作用,结果发现：（1）平常心对压力和生活满意度起部分中介作用,拼搏精神对压力和自尊起部分中介作用。（2）平常心对压力和心理症状总分、自卑、网络成瘾、敌对起部分中介作用,拼搏精神对压力和人际过敏、抑郁起部分中介作用。说明拼搏精神与平常心能缓减压力对心理健康的消极影响,培养拼搏精神和平常心是应对压力的有效途径。     

特征归纳中关联强度与关联相似性的交互作用效应

根据特征归纳的关联相似性模型分析和三个因素实验研究发现,在基于关联相似性而进行的特征归纳中,关联强度和关联相似性两因素对归纳强度的影响存在交互作用效应。关联相似性变化对归纳强度的影响依赖于关联强度,随关联强度的增加而增加。关联强度变化对归纳强度的影响依赖于关联相似性水平：在高的关联相似性条件下,归纳强度随关联强度增加而增加;在中等关联相似性条件下,归纳强度不受关联强度变化的影响;而在低的关联相似性条件下,归纳强度随关联强度增加而减小     

面孔部件相似性判断研究

用Morph变形方法构建家族相似性面孔部件样例,采用多级估量法探讨分类活动中面孔部件相似性判断问题。结果发现,部件样例对部件原型的隶属度及部件样例对整体原型中对应部件的隶属度与部件样例变形百分比间是3次函数关系;耳朵、脸型、眼睛等部件样例对整体原型中对应部件的隶属度小于其对部件原型的隶属度,嘴巴样例对整体原型中嘴巴部件的隶属度高于其对部件原型的隶属度。表明面孔部件物理相似性与心理相似性间是3次函数关系;整体原型中其他部件降低了耳朵、脸型、眼睛等部件样例对整体原型中对应部件的隶属度,而提高了嘴巴样例对整体原     

亲子间家庭功能知觉相似性的特点及其与青少年自尊的关系

采用家庭功能评价量表(FAI),Rosenberg自尊量表,对北京和西安4所普通中学的1317名初高中生及其父母进行调查。结果发现:(1)亲子间的家庭功能知觉存在中等程度的相似性,青少年与父亲和青少年与母亲间知觉的相似性无显著差异;(2)亲子间家庭功能知觉相似性的性别和年级差异显著,女孩与父母间知觉的相似性高于男孩,高一年级与父母知觉的相似性高于其他三个年级;家庭功能不同维度知觉相似性的表现不同;(3)不同性别和不同知觉相似性水平的青少年自尊得分差异显著;低相似性组个体的自尊分数显著低于高相似性组和一般组;亲子间在整体家庭功能和父母关注维度的相似性可显著预测青少年自尊。     

归纳推理中相似性和类别标签的作用

该文采用“篇章阅读”实验范式探索了归纳推理中前提类别和结论类别间相似性、结论类别标签属性对归纳推理的作用。90名大学生被试参加了3个实验。实验1结果表明,归纳推理受前提类别和结论类别之间相似性的影响,相似性越高归纳推理力度越强;实验2结果表明,归纳推理还受结论类别上位类别知识的影响,当类别属性和相似性冲突情况下,被试更倾向按照类别属性进行推理;实验3结果表明,归纳推理通达上位类别知识是一个主动建构的过程,即使是在类别标签不确定的情况下,被试仍然依赖类别标签进行推理。并初步提出了“归纳推理力度=两事物相似性×归类概率”模型设想。     

知觉或记忆条件下对连续变化刺激的相似判断

控制不同材料(图形和字母)的大小、位置和长宽比连续变化,在标准和待判断刺激同时(知觉任务)或相继呈现(记忆任务)两种条件下进行相似判断的实验研究。结论为(1)任务方式对图形的相似判断有非常显著的影响;(2)知觉任务中相似判断的反应时非常显著地长于记忆任务中的反应时;(3)对材料各种特征的相似判断和加工速度差异非常显著．某些特征在相似表征中有较重要的作用。