Sourcing stereotypes: constructing and challenging simplified knowledge

The social media uproar in Fall 2017 over a nursing textbook chart that presented generalised characterisations of minority groups generated an assumption that medical training needs more Religious Studies expertise. Analysing the sources that the chart cited, we trace the authors’ assertions to studies of varying quality and identify several specific processes involved in simplifying knowledge for dissemination, as the authors disregarded the limits of each specific study and ignored counter-evidence or otherwise evaded critical scrutiny. Comparing this example to examples from world religions discourse illustrates both differences and similarities in the process of constructing simplified presentations. While both presumably developed out of good intentions, they generate significant problems in their effort to shape material to support larger arguments. Thus, scholars across disciplines should critique and complicate their own processes for generating simplified knowledge.     

A comparison of four methods of constructing factor scores

Four least-squares methods for constructing factor scores have been described in the literature. The formal properties of these scores are developed, and they are compared in terms of four generally desirable properties of constructed factor scores. In particular, it is shown that two of the methods yield scores that are conditionally unbiassed, and univocal in the sense of Guilford and Michael, though not orthogonal, while one of the other methods yields orthogonal scores.It is shown that constructed factor scores cannot be simultaneously univocal and orthogonal, unless we choose the special basis in factor space given by Canonical Factor Analysis.The general problem of choosing between the methods is discussed, on the basis of the theoretical relations obtained.EDITOR'S NOTE: The reader will quickly discover that this article develops several of the generalizations given in the second part of the preceding article, On Factors and Factor Scores. Independent development of the same generalizations is, of course, not a new phenomenon. Because the Presidential Address automatically is accepted for publication and given space in the December issue, it was decided that the only fair thing to do was to print this article in the same issue.     

Differences between belief and knowledge systems

Seven features which in practice seem to differentiate belief systems from knowledge systems are discussed. These are: nonconsensuality, “existence beliefs,” alternative worlds, evaluative components, episodic material, unboundedness, and variable credences. Each of these features gives rise to challenging representation problems. Progress on any of these problems within artificial intelligence would be helpful in the study of knowledge systems as well as belief systems, inasmuch as the distinction between the two types of systems is not absolute.     

A duality between Pawlak's knowledge representation systems and bi-consequence systems

A duality between Pawlak's knowledge representation systems and certain information systems of logical type, called bi-consequence systems is established. As an application a first-order characterization of some informational relations is given and a completeness theorem for the corresponding modal logic INF is proved. It is shown that INF possesses finite model property and hence is decidable.     

Alternative methods of constructing strict weak orders from interval orders

Letn stimuli be linearly ordered by a physical attribute. Consider an individual's more than relation based on perceived attribute values. Assuming that the individual's relation agrees with the linear order and is an interval order, the paper examines the extent to which ordered pairs in the linear order but not in the interval order (due to nondetection of small differences) can be correctly identified on the basis of the interval order alone. Different methods of constructing strict weak orders from interval orders are compared by the degree of agreement with the underlying linear order.     

Improving the performance of knowledge and information systems

Dick Kuiper, a rural sociologist, is a research associate with the Department of Extension Science, Wageningen, Agricultural University, Hollandseweg, 6706 KN Wageningen, The Netherlands. He is involved in research on agricultural knowledge and information systems.     

Comparison of methods for constructing confidence intervals of standardized indirect effects

Mediation models are often used as a means to explain the psychological mechanisms between an independent and a dependent variable in the behavioral and social sciences. A major limitation of the unstandardized indirect effect calculated from raw scores is that it cannot be interpreted as an effect-size measure. In contrast, the standardized indirect effect calculated from standardized scores can be a good candidate as a measure of effect size because it is scale invariant. In the present article, 11 methods for constructing the confidence intervals (CIs) of the standardized indirect effects were evaluated via a computer simulation. These included six Wald CIs, three bootstrap CIs, one likelihood-based CI, and the PRODCLIN CI. The results consistently showed that the percentile bootstrap, the bias-corrected bootstrap, and the likelihood-based approaches had the best coverage probability. Mplus, LISREL, and Mx syntax were included to facilitate the use of these preferred methods in applied settings. Future issues on the use of the standardized indirect effects are discussed.     

Two methods of reducing overconfidence

Prior research has suggested that most people are seriously overconfident in their answers to general knowledge questions. We attempted to reduce over-confidence in each of two separate experiments. In Experiment 1 half of the subjects answered five practice questions which appeared to be difficult. The remaining subjects answered practice problems which appeared to be easy but were actually just as difficult as the other group's practice questions. Within each of these two groups, half of the subjects received feedback on the accuracy of their answers to the practice questions, while the other half received no feedback. All four groups then answered 30 additional questions and indicated their confidence in these answers. The group which had received five apparently “easy” practice questions and then had been given feedback on the accuracy of their answers was underconfident on the final 30 questions. In Experiment 2 subjects who anticipated a group discussion of their answers to general knowledge questions took longer to answer the questions and expressed less overconfidence in their answers than did a control group.     

Computer-based systems for applying psychological knowledge

Computer-based systems have long been seen as a means for applying psychological knowledge to instructing. However, from many years of research and development on instructional design and on using computers for instructing, we learned that the current instructional techniques are based on an inadequate scientific knowledge base and are poorly implemented. In order to do better, improved techniques based on modern cognitive science must be developed, and computer-based aids are needed to assist their application. Furthermore, a standardization and distribution system is needed to identify effective instructional programs and make them available. This seems especially important if we hope to have broad impact on education and training.     

Consumer knowledge and acceptance of advanced driver assistance systems

This research aimed to examine how personal car users are informed about Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) in Australia, and the extent to which information received at point of sale influenced the level of understanding and adaptation of ADAS. Further, this study applied the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to assess drivers’ intentions to use ADAS within the next month. Participants were required to have purchased a new or second-hand vehicle within the past five years and which had at least one of the following five ADAS: autonomous emergency braking, lane departure warning, adaptive cruise control, blind spot monitoring, and rear cross traffic alert. Participants (N = 217, Mage = 47.87 years, 149 male) completed a 20-minute online questionnaire. The findings revealed that 122 (56%) participants reported not seeking out any information about ADAS prior to purchasing their vehicle. Further, the most reported approaches used by participants to learn about their vehicle’s ADAS were through the owner’s manual (n = 121, 55%) and via trial and error (n = 117, 54%). It was also found that total time spent with the salesperson in explaining ADAS features did not influence drivers’ level of understanding of ADAS or number of days to adapt to the ADAS in their vehicle. However, and consistent with the TAM, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use were significant positive predictors of intentions to use ADAS within the next month. It was also found that participants who learnt about these technologies either via reading the owner’s manual, trial and error, or a verbal explanation at point of sale appeared to be more frequently classified as reporting higher acceptance of ADAS than those participants who did not use those learning methods. Given that technology in vehicles will continue to advance, it is vital that more work is conducted to educate drivers about the functionality of ADAS. Further, it is also important to communicate where buyers of personal cars can go and find accurate and reliable information about ADAS.     

Personal knowledge,belief systems,and educational innovators

The role of early socialization is examined to determine the relationship of this prior experience to teachers' belief systems. A brief analysis of belief systems is undertaken, followed by a narrative drawn from the life history of one reform-minded teacher from an innovative school. A constructivist position represented by George Kelly and Jerome Bruner is used to explicate the analysis. Implications are drawn for the importance of considering the early experience of teachers in developing teacher education programs. In particular, the recent reform literature in teacher education is critiqued and faulted for ignoring the important role of teacher belief systems, which in turn are argued to be strongly influenced by early socialization.     

SVIB revisions and factors affecting scale reliability

The 1966 SVIB scoring keys were investigated and found to contain an average of 214 fewer items per occupational scale than the 1938 scoring keys. The shorter scales are less reliable than the longer scales on the 1966 SVIB. The shorter scales in the 1966 edition and SCII contain items which differentiate criterion group members less well than do the longer scales. There may not be a wide enough range of item content on the SCII to develop reliable (and valid?) scales for certain occupations. Equivalence between the 1938 and 1966 editions functionally is low, as evidenced by the median correlation of .47 in the present 12-yr follow-up study for 40 occupational scales.     

Implications of test revisions for research

Test revisions are increasingly common in psychology and neuropsychology in particular. However, such revisions may alter in complex ways the kind of information obtained, and they may assess traits, abilities, and conditions in ways different from earlier versions. This article outlines some of the problems associated with the revision of tests facing clinicians and researchers. Three broad classes of revision are considered. Part 1 considers the aging of tests, part 2 concerns the aging of participants, and part 3 considers changes in test format. Although the article focuses largely on measures of intelligence and personality, the issues addressed in the article apply to other tests and assessment domains as well.