不同类型反馈对儿童学习效果的影响及性别差异

儿童阶段是对外部反馈最敏感的阶段。以往研究发现,不同类型反馈（积极/消极反馈）和不同性质的强化物（物质/社会性强化）对儿童学习效果存在交互作用,并且对不同性别儿童的影响有所不同。本研究通过两个实验,采用联结学习范式以考察不同类型反馈对8~10岁儿童学习效果的影响。首先考察了积极反馈和消极反馈对儿童学习效果的影响,进而在积极、消极反馈的基础上加入了物质、社会性强化物,探究物质、社会性强化条件下积极、消极反馈对儿童学习效果影响的性别差异。结果表明,对于8~10岁儿童来说,消极反馈比积极反馈对儿童学习效果的影响更大。并且,物质、社会性强化物对儿童反馈学习效果的影响存在性别差异,对于男孩来说,在物质性强化条件下,消极反馈更能促进其学习;而对于女孩来说,在社会性强化物下,消极反馈更能促进她们的学习。该研究为如何运用反馈促进儿童学习提供了实证依据。     

Effects of Motivation on Young Children's Object Recall and Strategy Use

The study was designed to examine the effects of motivation on young children's recall for object names and early-emerging mnemonic activities. Seventy-two 4-year-old children were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 instructional conditions: incidental, intentional, or motivational. Each child was shown 10 small toy objects and provided a 90 s study period prior to recall. The children's mnemonic behaviors were videotaped for subsequent coding. The children in the incidental condition were instructed to simply look at the toys while children in the intentional and motivational condition were given explicit instructions to remember. The motivational group was also told that they could keep whichever toys they remembered. A recognition memory task was employed to examine the extent to which the stimuli were encoded during the study period. The children's recall memory did not vary as a function of instructional condition. Children's use of singular versus multiple strategies was calculated, along with a weighted summary score giving most weight to the participant's use of mature mnemonic strategies. Significant differences in strategy use were found, favoring the motivational condition. Significant positive correlations were found between the weighted summary scores and object recall, and the teacher ratings of mastery motivation and object recall. Mastery motivation was found to be unrelated to the strategic summary scores, failing to mediate strategic behaviors. The results suggest that when providing incentives to remember, children apparently engaged in more effortful mnemonic processing in order to remember the items, even though a greater number of items were not recalled.     

Transfer Effects in Children's Recall of Arithmetic Facts

Predictions of the Identical Elements (IE) model of arithmetic fact representation (Rickard, 2005 Rickard, T. C. 2005. A revised identical elements model of arithmetic fact representation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31: 250–257. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Rickard & Bourne, 1996 Rickard, T. C. and Bourne, L. E. 1996. Some tests of an identical elements model of basic arithmetic skills. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22: 1281–1295. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) about transfer between arithmetic facts were tested in primary school children. The aim of the study was to test whether the IE model, constructed to explain adult performance, also applies to children. The IE model predicts no positive transfer when the numerical elements of a test problem do not match exactly with those of a practice problem. In two experiments, children practiced addition or multiplication problems. A large positive transfer effect was found for problems with an operand order change; improvement was just as high as for practiced problems. Smaller transfer effects were found for problems where one operand was increased with one unit and for problems with operands more different from practice problems. Analogous results were found for addition and multiplication, suggesting that storage and retrieval processes in both domains are similar in children. The findings suggest that there is a gradual decrease in transfer as the test problems become more different from practice problems, indicating that a more sophisticated model than the IE model is needed to explain transfer effects in children's recall of arithmetic facts.     

Gender Differences in Family Stories: Moderating Influence of Parent Gender Role and Child Gender

One hundred and twenty families and their 4-year-old children participated in a study on family stories. The participants were primarily White (91%), with the remainder Black (4%), Hispanic (2%), and Asian (2%). The parents were primarily middle class and upper class, with approximately 5% identifying themselves as from a lower socioeconomic background. Parents were asked to tell their son or daughter stories about when the parent was growing up. All parents completed measures of child behavior and a subset of parents completed the Bem Sex Role inventory. Stories were coded for the strength of affiliation, achievement, and autonomy themes. No gender differences were found for parents or child in the strength of affiliation themes. Fathers told stories with stronger autonomy themes than did mothers, and sons were more likely to hear stories with themes of autonomy than were daughters. An interaction was found between gender type of parent and gender of child for strength of achievement theme. Traditional gender-typed parents told stories with stronger achievement themes to their sons, and nontraditional gender-typed parents told stories with stronger achievement themes to their daughters. Exploratory analyses were conducted examining the relations among story theme, parent gender type, and child behavior. Higher levels of externalizing behaviors were found in boys whose fathers endorsed strong masculine attitudes, but told stories with weak achievement themes. Higher levels of internalizing behaviors were found in girls whose mothers told stories with strong affiliation themes, but endorsed weak feminine attitudes. Family stories are proposed to be one aspect of socialization that includes an interaction between child and parent characteristics.     

Preschool Children's Collaborative Problem-Solving Interactions: The Role of Gender,Pair Type,and Task

The purpose of this study was to investigate gender differences in problem-solving and conflict-resolution skills in preschool children. Children between 4 and 5 years of age completed 3 problem-solving tasks with either a same-sex or a different-sex peer. Children's verbal and nonverbal interactions were analyzed. Girls used mitigation more often than did boys. Mixed-sex dyads engaged in controlling verbal interactions more often than same-sex dyads. There were relationships between verbal and nonverbal behaviors and task success; these relationships also differed across pair types. The results of the study demonstrate that the gender differences in types of verbal interactions previously observed in preschool children's free play are also present in their problem-solving interactions and that children are able to alter the types of behaviors they use depending upon both partner gender and the type of task involved.     

阅读理解中的代词加工:先行词的距离与性别刻板印象的作用

采用眼动技术,本研究探讨了阅读理解中代词的加工机制.读者阅读包含代词的文本,代词的性别与先行词的性别刻板印象一致或违背,同时其和先行词间的距离或远或近,记录被试阅读文本的眼动轨迹.结果发现,与一致条件相比,违背条件的加工时间更长.当代词和先行词间距离较近时,一致性效应在关键代词区的反映早期加工的眼动指标上即出现,而当二者间距离较远时,一致性效应在更后的位置(代词后那一区域)出现,并且只出现在反映晚期加工的眼动指标上.此外,与远距离一致条件相比,近距离一致条件下代词后那一区域的阅读时间更长.上述结果表明,性别刻板印象以及距离在代词加工皆发挥重要作用,而且性别刻板印象产生的影响在时程上因距离的不同而不同.这一结果在一定程度上为语言理解的交互作用理论提供了证据.     

Young Children's Updating and Recall of Impressions: Effects of Informativeness and Deception

Sixty-five children between the ages of 3 and 6 years of age were tested on their recollection of changed impressions. It was found that impressions updated with determinate information were easier to recall than impressions updated with indeterminate information; impressions changed when trickery was involved were easier to recall than impressions changed when it was not; and although younger children recalled less than older ones did, overall, the effects of informativeness and trickery on recall were similar in both age groups. These findings cannot be accounted for fully by the proposal that younger children have more difficulty than older ones in representing 1 item in 2 different ways simultaneously. Instead, they support the argument that children's degree of success in recalling outdated impressions depends on the means available to distinguish an initial from an updated impression and order the 2 correctly with respect to each other, temporally. This interpretation of the findings draws attention to an aspect of early cognitive development that entails temporal memory processes and is implicated in performance on a variety of tasks.     

The Effects of Adult Suggestion and Child Consistency on Young Children's Reports1

The purpose of the present study was to contrast the effects of children's response consistency and adult leading questions in a structured memory interview. Children (N = 70) who viewed a 2‐min video clip were asked 3 questions (leading, misleading, and neutral) related to the video. Children's responses (assent vs. deny) were predicted by the type of question asked by the adult (neutral, leading, and misleading), but not by the previous response given by the child or the child's age in months. Specifically, children assented the least often to misleading questions. Accuracy was predicted by both question type and in the last question–answer pair, children's previous response accuracy. These findings are discussed with relation to interview dynamics.     

The Influence of Gender and Social Role on the Interpretation of Facial Expressions

The current studies were designed to examine the influence of apparent gender on the interpretation of ambiguous emotional expressions. Participants rated the intensity of emotions that were expressed in two versions of the same emotional expression, in which hair style and clothing were altered to manipulate gender. The emotional expression in each of the photos was a combination of anger and sadness. Of interest was the effect of the apparent gender of the poser on the interpretation of the blended emotional expression. In Study 2 we also examined whether the social role (i.e., occupation) of the poser influenced the interpretation. Although the occupation of the poser did not influence emotion ratings, the apparent gender of the poser influenced the interpretation of ambiguous emotional expressions in a stereotype-consistent manner in both Studies 1 and 2.     

Advertising's Effects on Men's Gender Role Attitudes

We posited that media images of men influence the gender role attitudes that men express soon after exposure to the images. A total of 212 men (87% European American, 7% Asian or Asian American, 3% African American, and 3% other) viewed magazine advertisements containing images of men that varied in terms of how traditionally masculine vs. androgynous they were and whether the models were the same age or much older than the viewers. Men who had initially been less traditional espoused more traditional attitudes than any other group after exposure to traditionally masculine models, although they continued to endorse relatively nontraditional views after exposure to androgynous models. These findings suggest that nontraditional men's gender role attitudes may be rather unstable and susceptible to momentary influences such as those found in advertising.     

Preschoolers' Recall of Own-Sex and Other-Sex Gender Scripts

A sample of 486 children in Beijing, China, were tested on the water-level task (WLT; J. Piaget &; B. Inhelder, 1948/1956). The participants were 256 boys and 230 girls from 4th, 5th, 6th, 8th, and 11th grades. Three levels of mastery of the WLT were found. Level 1 consisted of 4th and 5th graders, who averaged about 71% correct. Level 2 consisted of 6th and 8th graders, who averaged about 83% correct. Level 3 consisted of 11th graders, who averaged 97% correct. The results provide partial support for the Piagetian theory of age-related developmental differences in performance on the WLT. The findings depict an interactive relationship of maturation with culture and education in the development of the ability to solve the WLT.     

Gender and jealousy: Stories of infidelity

In three studies (total N = 337) we tested an evolutionary prediction using a scenario method in which participants read stories about their partners' infidelity and responded with their predicted emotional reaction on Likert scales. In Study 1, participants read that their partners went to a brothel. Contrary to evolutionary expectations, females reported being more hurt and angry than did males. Study 2 described a sexual or emotional encounter. Again, contrary to the crossover interaction predicted by evolutionists, both genders were upset more by the sexual than the emotional fling. Study 3 was about the end of an affair with a married person. As evolutionary theory might expect, males were less upset when their partners returned to their husbands than were females when their partners returned to their wives, but these main effects did not interact with the use of birth control and the opportunity to profit from cuckoldry.     

Children's Gender Stereotypes About Math: The Role of Stereotype Stratification1

Women underperform on standardized math tests compared to men. However, girls perform as well if not better than boys in math. In this paper, it is proposed that this discrepancy may be explained in part by a process of stereotype stratification, in which targets of a negative in‐group stereotype view themselves as a member of a subgroup to which the stereotype does not apply. Two experiments with elementary‐school children provide support for this theory. In Study 1, girls placed advanced math pictures with males more often than basic math pictures. In addition, girls rated men as liking and as being better at math than women, but viewed boys and girls as being equal on these variables. In Study 2, girls were more likely to draw a man when told a story about an adult mathematician, but were more likely to draw a girl when told of a child mathematician. The social and educational implications of these findings are discussed.     

刺激类型及表征关系对无意视盲的影响

通过考察刺激类型以及重叠呈现的图片流和词语流的表征关系对非注意刺激的捕获差异,试图考察刺激类型和表征关系对无意视盲（Inattentional Blindness）的影响。分别有20名中学生参加了词和图片基线水平测试,52名中学生参与了无意视盲实验。研究结果表明：（1）当词与图片重叠呈现时,不管注意刺激是词还是图片,也不管词与图片的表征是否一致,与基线水平相比,被试都出现了显著的无意视盲现象。（2）当词与图片的表征意义一致时,如果注意刺激是图片,而非注意刺激是词,那么被试更容易觉察到非注意刺激。（3）非注意刺激与注意刺激表征意义一致时更容易捕获观察者的注意     

Gender Differences in Self-Perception and Negative Recall Biases

This study investigated gender differences inthe accuracy of self-perceptions and whetherself-perception biases are related to negative recallbiases. Participants were 275 female and 213 malecollege students. Approximately 10% of the participantswere minorities (mostly African American and Asian). Ona masculine task, gender differences in self-perceptionswere found for three measures of accuracy: The accuracy of self-evaluations, calibration,and response bias. Females underestimated theirperformance, were less well calibrated, and showed amore conservative response bias than did males. Ashypothesized, no gender differences in the accuracy ofself-evaluations were found for feminine and neutraltasks. Participants' expectancies mediated the genderdifferences in post task self-evaluations ofperformance. In addition, evidence for a negative recallbias was found. Females were more likely than males torecall their mistakes even with performance and accuracyof self-evaluations controlled. The implications of females' greater self-perception biases onmasculine tasks are discussed and suggestions for futureresearch are made.     

Getting the Picture: Effects of Sketch Plans and Photographs on Children's,Adolescents' and Adults' Eyewitness Recall

We compared the effects of three types of visual aid on free recall across three age groups in an eyewitness paradigm. Child, adolescent and adult participants (N = 144) viewed a short film depicting a non‐violent crime and, following a brief delay, gave a free‐recall account. Participants then described the event once again, with the aid of their own sketch plan, a provided sketch plan or photograph, or with no visual aid. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and coded for the type and accuracy of information reported. Across all age groups, relative to the control condition, all three visual aids increased the amount of new information reported during the second free‐recall account and helped participants to maintain accuracy. All three visual aids therefore had a positive effect on participants' performance; in a forensic setting, however, witnesses' own sketch plans are likely to be the safest, most easily applied and most time effective.Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

儿童性别恒常性发展

性别恒常性发展是儿童性别认知发展的关键问题,该文介绍了这一领域研究的最新进展。儿童获得性别恒常性是一个渐进的过程,在6、7岁时已完全获得,儿童的认知发展水平、文化背景、社会经济地位、教育影响性别恒常性发展,性别恒常性与性别类型活动存在相关,但关系复杂。最后,作者对该领域的研究趋向做出了展望。     

Young Children's Distributive Justice Reasoning,Behavior, and Role Taking: Their Consistency and Relationship

Young children's reasoning about distributive justice, behavior, and role taking were measured to determine their consistency and relationship in three picture stories and in three parallel real situations in the classroom. Relatively nonverbal techniques were used. Children's reasoning and behavior were related, but their actual behavior in a real situation was at a lower level than was their reasoning about a hypothetical situation. Perceptual and social role taking were related with each other and with reasoning. Each level of social role taking was necessary for the corresponding stage of reasoning.     

情境类型对儿童道德情绪判断及归因的影响

选取259名4～7岁儿童,考察了其在不同道德情境中的道德情绪判断及归因模式的发展状况.结果显示:情境类型对儿童对行为者的道德情绪判断及归因具有重要影响.在不履行亲社会行为和反社会行为失败情境中,存在与反社会及亲社会情境中不同的情绪判断模式.儿童道德情绪判断归因模式的发展是以"结果定向--道德定向"为主线并整合多种定向,不履行亲社会行为情境中出现了责任定向,反社会及反社会行为失败情境中出现了弥补和掩饰定向.     

A Gender Role Workshop Focused on Sexism,Gender Role Conflict,and the Gender Role Journey

A 6-day gender role workshop for adult men and women, using the phases of the gender role journey, is presented. The workshop's curriculum and process are described, including its assumptions, norms, and media. Movie clips, music, music videos, and academic content were used to promote participants' learning in both the cognitive and affective domains. Systematic follow-up evaluations of participants ( N =84) in three separate workshops are reported using Likert scaled questions. These evaluations assessed participants' personal learning, emotional reactions, and the workshop's overall impact over l-month and 1-and 2-year follow-up periods. Results indicate that participants were affected personally and professionally over the various time periods.