认知负荷与编码方式影响小学数学学业不良生的前瞻记忆及其成分

通过两个实验探讨认知负荷对小学数学学业不良生前瞻记忆及其成分的影响, 以及是否可以通过执行意向编码提高其前瞻记忆及其成分的成绩。实验1结果显示数学学业不良生前瞻记忆、前瞻成分及回溯成分正确率显著低于数学学优生, 高认知负荷条件前瞻记忆、前瞻成分及回溯成分的正确率显著低于低认知负荷条件; 实验2结果显示执行意向编码条件下, 数学学业不良生前瞻记忆成绩显著好于标准编码条件, 前瞻成分和回溯成分的正确率高于标准编码条件。结果表明数学学业不良生前瞻记忆及其成分表现差于数学学优生; 无论认知负荷高低, 执行意向编码均可通过提升前瞻成分和回溯成分改善数学学业不良生前瞻记忆表现。     

执行意向影响事件性前瞻记忆的加工机制

本研究旨在探究不同执行意向编码形式对前瞻记忆加工机制的影响是否存在差异。结果显示在低认知负荷下,混合编码效果最好,仅执行意向编码次之,标准编码效果最差,而在高认知负荷下三种编码效果无差异。眼动指标显示在低认知负荷下混合编码的注视点数量最多,总注视时间最长;在混合编码条件下进行中任务和前瞻记忆任务的总注视时间均长于仅执行意向编码和标准编码。结果说明,执行意向编码容易受认知负荷的影响;在低认知负荷下混合编码的被试对任务刺激进行更多的监控和加工,而仅执行意向编码促进前瞻记忆任务的自动化加工。     

执行意向在不同认知负荷下对前瞻记忆的影响

实验一采用3(编码方式:标准、执行意向、提取练习)×2(认知负荷:高、低)混合实验设计,考察编码方式和认知负荷对基于事件的前瞻记忆的影响。结果表明在高认知负荷条件下,提取练习编码效果好于执行意向编码。实验二采用2(编码方式:执行意向确定形成、提取练习)×2(认知负荷:高、低)混合实验设计,并通过之后的纸笔测验加强联结程度,结果和实验一相同。结果表明执行意向编码对前瞻记忆的影响受认知负荷的限制。     

编码方式、认知负荷和线索数量对前瞻记忆的影响

采用2（编码方式：执行意向、练习）×2（认知负荷：高、低）×2（线索数量：单一线索、多线索）的混合设计探讨在不同认知负荷和线索数量下两种编码方式对前瞻记忆的影响。结果表明：认知负荷和编码方式交互作用显著,在高认知负荷条件下,练习编码显著好于执行意向编码;线索数量和编码方式交互作用显著,在多线索条件下,练习编码显著好于执行意向编码。说明执行意向编码更容易受认知负荷和线索数量的影响。研究支持了预备注意与记忆加工理论。     

前瞻记忆的年老化效应:前瞻成分和回溯成分的调节作用

关注事件性前瞻记忆的年老化,采用基于双重任务的实验室研究范式,实验一控制线索与意向的关联性和线索的显著性操纵概念驱动加工和数据驱动加工过程,比较前瞻记忆的前瞻成分和回溯成分的年老化影响;实验二检验前瞻成分在前瞻记忆年老化中的作用。结果显示,线索与意向的关联性和线索与背景的区别性作为概念驱动加工和数据驱动加工的重要表现形式可以显著地促进老年人的前瞻记忆水平,前瞻记忆年老化主要存在于前瞻记忆的前瞻成分;前瞻成分较高的注意资源需求导致前瞻记忆的年龄差异主要受任务的认知需求水平所影响,当前瞻记忆是相对自动加工时,年龄差异小;当任务需要较多的控制加工时,年龄差异相对较大。本研究进一步揭示了导致前瞻记忆年龄差异的原因。     

靶线索与意向关联性对事件性前瞻记忆的影响

采用基于双重任务的研究范式,操纵线索与意向的关联性、分心水平以及线索区别性,考察了前瞻记忆的前瞻成分和回溯成分在基于事件的前瞻记忆中的作用。结果表明：（1）靶线索与意向关联性对前瞻记忆的回溯成分有显著影响,靶线索与意向高关联时,意向提取过程符合自动加工;靶线索与意向低关联时,意向提取过程符合策略加工。（2）靶线索的区别性对前瞻记忆的前瞻成分有显著影响,靶线索区别性特征显著提高对线索的识别水平,符合自动加工,当靶线索特征不显著时需要策略加工。     

背景任务刺激间的时距对前瞻干扰效应的影响

前瞻记忆是指形成和保持一个意向直到合适的情境或时间再执行的一种记忆任务。由于在执行背景任务的过程中保持和提取前瞻意向, 使成功执行前瞻记忆任务与加工背景任务之间存在着相互影响。保持前瞻记忆意向对背景任务的反应时和正确率有影响的现象称之为前瞻干扰效应。本研究通过操纵背景任务刺激间时距的两个实验, 考察了背景任务刺激间时距长度对时间性前瞻记忆和事件性前瞻记忆干扰效应量的对比关系的影响。结果发现随着背景任务刺激间时距缩短, 两类前瞻记忆干扰效应量的对比关系发生了变化, 且在背景任务刺激间时距长度不同的情况下执行时间性前瞻记忆任务时, 被试查看时钟的策略也有差异。提示了时间性前瞻记忆任务与事件性前瞻记忆任务认知加工机制上的不同。     

前瞻记忆后效的加工机制：对自发提取观点和抑制观点的检验

摘 要 实验1探究前瞻记忆后效的产生是否消耗认知资源,实验2进一步探究前瞻记忆后效产生过程中消耗的认知资源的去向。实验1结果显示在完成阶段,相比于基线条件,其它四种实验条件的进行中任务反应速度均较慢,实验2结果显示无论线索是否显著,前瞻记忆后效均会随着认知负荷的提高而提高。结果表明前瞻记忆后效产生过程中会消耗认知资源对原意向进行抑制。本研究支持了抑制的观点。     

目标显著性和任务重要性对数学学业不良生和学优生前瞻记忆和前瞻干扰效应的影响

有问卷调查表明,个体的学业成绩特别是数学成绩与前瞻记忆表现有一定的相关,学业不良生报告更多的前瞻记忆失败。也有实验研究显示,学业不良生在很多情况下前瞻记忆表现劣于学优生。但是,影响学业不良生前瞻记忆表现的因素却并不是很明确。本研究从目标显著性和任务重要性这两个可以着手于改善前瞻记忆的主要因素入手,考察其对数学学业不良生和学优生事件性前瞻记忆和前瞻干扰效应的影响,以期为提高学业不良生的前瞻记忆表现提供实证依据。 采用2学业成就（学业不良生、学优生）×2前瞻记忆任务重要性（强调重要、不强调）×2目标显著性（显著、不显著）混合实验设计,目标显著性为被试内变量,其他两个因素为被试间变量,在双任务实验范式（前瞻记忆任务镶嵌于进行中任务）中,考察三个因素对前瞻记忆正确率和反应时的影响。此外,被试还需完成基线条件,在基线条件下被试只有进行中任务,没有前瞻记忆任务,通过实验条件和基线条件的正确率和反应时差异,考察前瞻记忆任务对进行中任务的干扰效应,推测前瞻记忆的加工机制。结果表明,学业不良生在所有前瞻记忆任务表现均劣于学优生;目标显著性与前瞻记忆任务重要性对前瞻记忆正确率有显著的交互作用,强调任务重要性使目标不显著条件下的前瞻记忆正确率提高,对显著条件的前瞻记忆正确率没有影响。强调任务重要性使所有实验条件的前瞻记忆反应时下降,目标显著使所有实验条件的前瞻记忆正确率提高。所有实验条件进行中任务正确率低于基线条件,反应时也慢于基线条件,表明执行前瞻记忆任务对进行中任务产生了干扰,学业不良生和学优生在本实验条件下对前瞻记忆任务均采用监控的加工方式。结果说明,学业不良生前瞻记忆成绩较差,可以通过设置显著的目标提高其前瞻记忆成绩,当目标显著时无需强调其重要性,若无法设置显著的目标,则通过强调任务重要性提高前瞻记忆表现。     

加工焦点性和任务负荷对不同认知方式大学生前瞻记忆的影响

采用双任务范式,探讨了加工焦点性和进行中任务负荷对不同认知方式大学生前瞻记忆的影响。包括两个实验:实验一探讨进行中任务与前瞻记忆任务加工的焦点性和加工类型的一致性对不同认知方式大学生前瞻记忆的影响;实验二探讨进行中任务负荷对不同认知方式大学生在在焦点加工和非焦点加工条件下前瞻记忆的影响。结果显示:焦点加工条件下的前瞻记忆成绩高于非焦点加工,且不受进行中任务负荷的影响;不管进行中任务与前瞻记忆任务的加工类型是否一致,在进行中任务负荷较高且非焦点加工条件下,场独立大学生的前瞻记忆成绩高于场依存大学生。本研究结果支持多重加工理论。     

The influence of high and low cue–action association on prospective memory performance

Recent discoveries in the field of prospective memory (PM) show higher accuracy for remembering intentions in which prospective cue and action are strongly associated. In two experiments presented in this paper, participants encoded both high and low association cue–action pairs and were later tested on both prospective and retrospective PM components. Results of both studies show higher PM accuracy for the low association pairs, compared to high association ones, but only for the prospective component (across both Experiments) and only when a high association cue was presented first (Experiment 2). This finding was accompanied by longer study times for the low association pairs and study times were functionally related to later performance (across both Experiments). In the retrospective component, higher accuracy was observed for pairs with high level of association (but only in the first Experiment). Data are discussed in the context of metacognitive processes possibly related to the encoding of an intention as well as cue monitoring in case of PM tasks with high memory load and varying task difficulty.     

The effect of implementation intentions on prospective memory performance across the lifespan

Differences in the amount and availability of cognitive resources may be responsible for age‐related differences in event‐based prospective memory tasks. We hypothesised that a manipulation which reduces resource requirements by enhancing automatic processing will reduce age differences. Implementation intentions are assumed to satisfy this requirement. We tested a total of 563 participants, 185 adolescents, 193 young adults and 185 older adults in order to investigate whether providing participants with implementation intention instructions would improve performance, whether any improvement would vary with age, and whether it would affect the prospective component or the retrospective component. The results showed a benefit of implementation intentions for older adults, but not for adolescents and for young adults. Separate analyses for the prospective and the retrospective components revealed that this effect was based mainly on a performance facilitation of the prospective component. These results suggest that implementation intentions provide a means to reduce age differences in prospective memory. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Implementation Intentions and Facilitation of Prospective Memory

Forming detailed implementation intentions for a future behavior can increase the probability that the behavior is actually completed. We investigated whether this intention effect could be used to improve prospective memory in older adults. As expected, participants who formed an implementation intention were more than twice as likely to self-initiate the intended behavior (writing down the day of the week on every sheet of paper received during the experiment) compared with participants who either were merely instructed to do so or actively rehearsed the instruction. Forming an implementation intention, however, did not improve performance on a task that required a response to salient cues. We conclude that detailed implementation intentions facilitate prospective memory on tasks that lack salient cues and require self-initiation.     

Strengthening encoding via implementation intention formation increases prospective memory commission errors

Prospective memory refers to the ability to remember to execute future intentions (e.g., taking medication with dinner). Although most prior research on prospective memory errors has focused on omission errors (i.e., failures to perform an intention in response to a target cue), there has been a recent surge in research on commission errors, the erroneous performance of a finished intention. Existing studies have examined factors at retrieval that lead to commission errors; the present study extends this research by investigating the impact of encoding strength. We found that relative to standard encoding, implementation intention encoding doubled the risk of commission errors in our laboratory paradigm for both young and older adults. This novel finding demonstrates the impact of encoding strength on commission errors and documents the potential challenges of deactivating the effects of implementation intentions upon completion of a prospective memory task.     

The Compensatory Role of Implementation Intentions for Young Adults with Low Working Memory Capacity

Many factors improve prospective memory performance both inside and outside of the laboratory, including the detailed planning of the situational cue and intended action (i.e., implementation intentions). In the current study, we obtained measures of working memory capacity and laboratory event‐based prospective memory performance in college‐aged adults. Half of our participants formed an implementation intention in the prospective memory task. Because of evidence that implementation intentions increase the encoding/retrieval efficiency of the prospective memory, it was predicted that forming an implementation intention would serve as a compensatory strategy for those with low working memory ability. Our results supported this hypothesis in that working memory capacity no longer correlated with prospective memory performance when participants employed an implementation intention encoding strategy. These findings suggest that implementation intentions may be an effective way for individuals with low working memory capacity to improve their performance in an attentionally demanding prospective memory task. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.