金钱概念启动对亲社会行为的影响及其决策机制

金钱是一种重要的资源, 也是人们日常生活中非常熟悉的概念。国内外有关实证研究发现, 启动金钱概念会诱发自足感、经济型心理定势、自由市场的价值观以及利己自我图式(社会认知模型), 从而导致亲社会行为减少。文章探讨了金钱概念启动对利他性亲社会行为、遵规与公益性亲社会行为、关系性亲社会行为和特质性亲社会行为的影响。未来的研究应该进一步关注：(1)金钱概念启动在组织管理中的研究; (2)贫富差异在金钱概念启动与亲社会行为关系中的调节效应; (3)深化时间概念启动影响亲社会行为的研究; (4)金钱概念启动影响亲社会行为的神经机制研究。     

金钱启动与道德认同对大学生道德伪善的影响

以大学生为被试,采用任务分配范式,实验1考察了金钱概念启动和道德认同对个体道德伪善的影响;实验2探讨了金钱丰富程度启动和道德认同对个体道德伪善的影响。结果发现：(1)与控制组相比,金钱概念启动使得言行不一的人数显著增加;与金钱匮乏感启动组相比,金钱富足感启动使得言行不一的人数显著增加;(2)低道德认同被试中道德伪善者的比例显著高于高道德认同被试;而且金钱启动显著增加了高道德认同被试的道德伪善。该研究启示我们减少情境中的金钱等与利益有关的线索以及提高个体的道德认同水平,将有利于减少道德伪善的发生。     

真实和虚拟金钱奖赏影响风险决策行为*

在风险情境下人类如何决策是长久以来心理学和经济学研究中一个极具挑战性的核心问题。众多研究采用真实或虚拟金钱作为奖赏强化物来探索风险决策行为的过程和机制,但对金钱奖赏真实性如何影响决策了解很少。仿真气球冒险任务(BART：Balloon Analogue Risk Task)可以在实验室条件下有效评估个体在真实社会中的风险行为。本研究采用 BART任务,通过两个实验探讨和比较了真实与虚拟金钱奖赏对风险决策行为的影响。实验一的结果发现,与虚拟金钱奖赏相比,真实金钱奖赏情境下的风险决策更容易受上一次决策结果的影响,上一次决策失败会导致被试的风险偏好水平显著降低(平均吹气球的次数显著减少),同时决策失败(气球吹爆)次数也显著减少,提示真实金钱奖赏下有更强的反馈学习效应。实验二重复了实验一的结果,并进一步发现,虚拟金钱奖赏的幅度对被试的风险决策行为没有影响,而真实金钱奖赏的幅度能显著改变被试的风险决策行为,较大幅度的真实金钱奖赏可以显著降低被试的风险偏好水平,但这种奖赏幅度对风险偏好的调控效应只对感觉寻求水平低的被试有效,感觉寻求水平高的被试不受影响。这些发现表明真实与虚拟金钱奖赏对风险决策行为有不同的影响。我们的结果可以用风险决策的后悔理论或齐当别模型来解释。     

金钱崇拜对个体跨期决策偏好的影响

采用经典跨期选择任务范式,以个体的金钱喜好差异为切入点,通过问卷调查和行为实验考察金钱崇拜对个体跨期决策偏好的影响。结果发现:(1)个体的金钱崇拜水平与其跨期折扣倾向显著负相关;(2)无论跨期决策任务的难易和兑现时间的长短,高金钱崇拜者更倾向于选择较大的延迟奖赏,而低金钱崇拜者更倾向于选择较小的即时奖赏;(3)高、低金钱崇拜者的跨期决策反应时没有明显的差异,但二者的反应时都明显地受到任务难度的影响,即在容易条件下的反应速度显著快些。结果表明,个体的金钱崇拜水平在跨期决策过程中发挥着重要的作用,致使高金钱崇拜者更愿意等待延迟大奖赏的到来。     

金钱惩罚促进Stroop任务中的行为表现

本研究通过Stroop任务和修改版MIDT相结合,目的是考察不同额度金钱惩罚对Stroop任务行为表现的影响。结果发现：（1）无论是中性试次,一致试次还是不一致试次,金钱惩罚不仅减少了被试的行为反应时,而且提高了正确率;（2）非惩罚条件与惩罚条件下的冲突效应以及其他不同额度惩罚条件下的冲突效应差异不显著;（3）金钱惩罚对不一致试次反应时的影响与个体的惩罚敏感性呈显著负相关,而与奖赏敏感性无关。结果表明,金钱惩罚能够促进个体的一般行为表现,但是不会提高冲突抑制能力。同时,金钱惩罚对认知行为的影响与其惩罚敏感性密切相关。     

金钱惩罚促进Stroop任务中的行为表现

本研究通过Stroop任务和修改版MIDT相结合,目的是考察不同额度金钱惩罚对Stroop任务行为表现的影响。结果发现：（1）无论是中性试次,一致试次还是不一致试次,金钱惩罚不仅减少了被试的行为反应时,而且提高了正确率;（2）非惩罚条件与惩罚条件下的冲突效应以及其他不同额度惩罚条件下的冲突效应差异不显著;（3）金钱惩罚对不一致试次反应时的影响与个体的惩罚敏感性呈显著负相关,而与奖赏敏感性无关。结果表明,金钱惩罚能够促进个体的一般行为表现,但是不会提高冲突抑制能力。同时,金钱惩罚对认知行为的影响与其惩罚敏感性密切相关。     

金钱的社会资源理论:十年回顾与展望

金钱具有强大的象征力量。Zhou等人在2008年提出了一个金钱的社会资源理论,用以解释金钱对个体行为的负面影响。这个理论认为金钱可以替代社会关系作为个体安全感和痛苦的核心来源。金钱能增强个体的力量和效能感,进而缓解个体的社会疼痛和生理疼痛。金钱替代社会关系之后,就会对个体产生一些负面影响。该理论以及其支撑的实证研究在10年间共被引用718次(Google Scholar)。本文回顾了这个理论以及依托在这个理论之上的新的实证证据,并对这个理论进行了延伸和展望。     

行为决策中作为价值的时间:基于与金钱的比较

传统经济学家认为,时间就是金钱,而近年来的一些研究却发现了与之不同的结论。后续的研究者主要从损失和受益时的风险偏好和决策依据、沉没成本效应、心理账户和禀赋效应这四个方面对时间和金钱进行比较,但是这方面的研究还处于起步阶段,还有许多问题需要在以后的研究中深入探讨。未来的研究应对时间是否存在损失规避和敏感性递减、时间的沉没成本效应和时间的禀赋效应的形成机制等问题进行探讨。     

社会拥挤对金钱捐赠意愿的影响：自我表达需要的中介作用

通过四个实验（474名被试）,采用三种不同的刺激物操纵拥挤感,在三种不同情境下测量两类金钱捐赠行为,来探索拥挤感对金钱捐赠的影响。结果发现：拥挤感强（vs. 弱）的被试有更高的金钱捐赠意愿、更高的月度和年度捐赠金额;其中个体的自我表达需要发挥中介作用,即体验到强拥挤感的个体的自我表达需要更强,为了满足这一需要,更积极响应金钱捐赠的呼吁。     

无意识自我控制目标启动对自我损耗的补偿效应

本研究基于对无意识目标启动的研究,采用阈上、阈下启动方式探讨无意识目标启动对自我损耗的补偿作用。实验1发现,阈上无意识目标启动能够有效提高自我控制,促进自控表现。实验2发现,阈下无意识目标启动对自我损耗存在补偿效应。上述结果提示,通过无意识启动方式激活自我控制目标,可以克服自我损耗的不良效应,且无需意识参与。     

The Sticky Anchor Hypothesis: Ego Depletion Increases Susceptibility to Situational Cues

Self‐control depletion has been linked both to increased selfish behavior and increased susceptibility to situational cues. The present research tested two competing hypotheses about the consequence of depletion by measuring how people allocate rewards between themselves and another person. Seven experiments analyzed behavior in standard dictator games and reverse dictator games, settings in which participants could take money from another person. Across all of these experiments, depleted participants made smaller changes to the initial allocation, thereby sticking closer to the default position (anchor) than non‐depleted participants. These findings provide support for a “sticky anchor hypothesis,” which states that the effects of depletion on behavior are influenced by the proximal situational cues rather than by directly stimulating selfishness per se. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The idea of money counteracts ego depletion effects

Self-control draws upon a resource that is limited, such that acts of self-control deplete the resource, causing performance on subsequent acts of self-control to suffer. In this research, we demonstrate that activating the concept of money can buffer this ego depletion effect. Across two experiments using varied operationalizations of self-control, participants completed an initial task that depleted self-control resources or not, were then reminded of money or neutral concepts, and finally, completed a second task requiring self-control. In both experiments, among depleted participants, those reminded of money performed better on the second self-control task than those reminded of neutral concepts. Additional analyses in Experiment 2 suggest that this buffering effect was due to money reducing both the subjective difficulty and effort required on the second self-control task.     

Ego depletion results in an increase in spontaneous false memories

The primary aim of the current study was to examine whether depleted cognitive resources might have ramifications for the formation of neutral and negative spontaneous false memories. To examine this, participants received neutral and negative Deese/Roediger–McDermott false memory wordlists. Also, for half of the participants, cognitive resources were depleted by use of an ego depletion manipulation (solving difficult calculations while being interfered with auditory noise). Our chief finding was that depleted cognitive resources made participants more vulnerable for the production of false memories. Our results shed light on how depleted cognitive resources affect neutral and negative correct and errant memories.     

Depletion,moral identity,and unethical behavior: Why people behave unethically after self-control exertion

Self-control enables people to resist short-term temptations in the service of long-term goals. Previous exertion of self-control leads to a state of ego depletion. Three studies demonstrated that ego depletion leads to a high level of unethical behavior. These studies also hypothesized and confirmed that depleted individuals behave unethically because of low moral identity. Study 1 found that depleted participants were more likely to over-report their performance than non-depleted participants. Study 2 revealed that depletion reduced people’s moral identity, which in turn increased their propensity to engage in unethical behavior. Study 3 proved that priming moral identity eliminated the effect of depletion on cheating. Findings suggest that reduced moral identity accounts for the effect of self-control depletion on unethical behavior.     

Individual differences in banknote processing: the role of altruism

We evaluated whether banknotes processing depended on altruism and attitude towards money. In Experiment 1, context effects were examined when participants named banknotes blocked by category or intermixed with pictures from semantic categories. Attitude towards money was assessed by questionnaires and the degree of altruism was evaluated with the dictator game task. In this task, participants received an amount of money and they had to decide whether to donate all, nothing or part of it. A facilitation effect was found in the banknote naming task and this effect increased as the amount of donations decreased. In Experiment 2, we examined whether less altruistic individuals might focus on the relevant information needed to process banknotes in a monetary Stroop task. Only more altruistic individuals showed Stroop effects. These results are interpreted as due to enhanced control while processing relevant information associated to banknotes in less altruistic individuals.     

Fighting self-control failure: Overcoming ego depletion by increasing self-awareness

According to the limited strength model (Muraven, Tice & Baumeister, 1998), exerting self-control causes ego depletion: a depletion of cognitive resources resulting in poorer performance on later self-control tasks. Previous studies have demonstrated a positive effect of self-awareness on self-control performance. The present study examined whether the occurrence of ego depletion can be circumvented by increasing self-awareness. Initially depleted participants who received a neutral prime exhibited the classic ego depletion pattern: their performance on a subsequent physical self-control task decreased significantly. In contrast, no decrease in performance was observed for depleted participants who were exposed to a self-awareness prime. The latter group performed equally well compared to low depleted participants.     

Does counting to ten increase or decrease aggression? The role of state self‐control (ego‐depletion) and consequences

In this investigation, we experimentally test the interaction of ego‐depletion (low state self‐control), consequences, and decision‐making time on aggressive responses to an insult from a confederate. The results indicate that ego‐depleted participants respond more quickly and aggressively to an insult from a confederate. However, when a 30‐ second decision‐making delay is imposed, ego‐depleted participants reduce their aggression, but only if there are external consequences to being aggressive. In the absence of such consequences, ego‐depleted participants become more aggressive following a delay. Additionally, if a distracting cognitive load disrupts the 30‐ second delay, aggression levels do not change significantly, even if there are consequences. These results suggest people respond to aggressive triggers more impulsively when ego‐depleted.     

Unwilling but not unable to control: Ego depletion increases effortful dishonesty with material rewards

Previous studies have found that ego depletion increases dishonesty. However, it remains unclear whether ego depletion makes participants unable to exert self‐control or unwilling to exert self‐control when it increases dishonesty. The present study aimed to clarify this. Based on the process model, ego depletion causes individuals to pay more attention to material rewards and increases the motivation to act on impulse. Therefore, it is possible that ego‐depleted participants are unwilling, rather than unable, to be honest. We conducted two experiments to examine this hypothesis. Results showed that ego depletion increased material‐based dishonesty even when the dishonest behavior was more complicated and effortful than was the honest behavior. However, participants were reluctant to cheat just for convenience, and ego depletion had no apparent effect on convenience‐based dishonesty without any material rewards. The theoretical implications and future directions of these results are discussed.     

自我损耗促进冒险行为

基于自我控制资源模型,本研究探讨了自我损耗对冒险行为的影响以及生理能量补充在其中的缓解作用。实验1和实验2分别通过“Stroop”和“非利手写作”任务操纵被试的自我损耗,两个实验均用气球模拟风险决策任务考察被试的冒险行为,并且通过摄入含有或不含有葡萄糖的柠檬水来操纵生理能量水平。结果发现,在排除无关变量后,高损耗者比低损耗者尽可能多地对气球进行充气以寻求奖赏(实验1和实验2),但饮用含葡萄糖的柠檬水能够有效降低这种反应(实验2)。该研究证实了自我损耗促进冒险行为,补充生理能量能有效缓解该效应。     

Does a Tired Mind Help Avoid a Decision Bias? The Effect of Ego Depletion on Escalation of Commitment

In this research, we investigated the effect of ego depletion on escalation of commitment. Specifically, we conducted two laboratory experiments and obtained evidence that ego depletion decreases escalation of commitment. In Study 1, we found that individuals were less susceptible to escalation of commitment after completing an ego depletion task. In Study 2, we confirmed the effect observed in Study 1 using a different manipulation of ego depletion and a different subject pool. Contrary to the fundamental assumption of bounded rationality that people have a tendency to make decision errors when mental resources are scarce, the findings of this research show that a tired mind can help reduce escalation bias.