青少年抑郁与自伤行为的发展轨迹及其关系：基于两年的追踪研究

本研究通过对贵州四所学校的581名初一学生进行历时2年的3次追踪测查，采用交叉滞后模型和潜变量增长模型考察了青少年抑郁和自伤行为的时序效应以及二者的发展轨迹及其关系，同时探究了社会支持在其间的保护作用。结果发现：(1)青少年抑郁能够显著预测其后续的自伤行为，但自伤行为对后续抑郁的预测作用不显著；(2)抑郁和自伤行为在青少年早期并非稳定不变，而是呈线性增长趋势；(3)抑郁的初始水平和增长均能正向预测青少年自伤行为的增长；(4)社会支持能够显著调节抑郁增长对青少年自伤行为增长的影响，具体而言，抑郁增长对青少年自伤行为增长的影响在低社会支持水平下更强，而在高社会支持水平下有所减弱，说明高社会支持在其中发挥了保护作用。该结果揭示了青少年抑郁和自伤行为的动态发展关系及其保护性因素，对于制定科学的预防及干预方案、帮助青少年减少自伤行为等具有重要价值。     

远近端人际压力与FKBP5基因对青少年自伤行为的联合影响：基于发展的视角

本研究采用为期2年的纵向追踪设计,在436名青少年中考察远端童年期虐待与近端同伴侵害对青少年自伤的相对作用与影响模式,以及FKBP5基因在其中发挥的调节作用。结果发现：(1)远近端人际压力均能显著预测青少年自伤行为,但二者的相对作用在青春期不同阶段会发生变化;(2)在全样本中,远近端人际压力均以“压力放大”模式影响自伤行为,即高童年期虐待放大近期同伴侵害对自伤行为的预测作用;(3)纳入FKBP5基因后,在AA纯合子青少年中仍符合“压力放大模型”,但在AC和CC基因型青少年中,影响模式则符合“压力敏感模型”,即经历高童年期虐待的青少年对近期同伴侵害更加敏感,在低同伴侵害下自伤得分相对较高。研究结果提示,远近端人际压力对青少年自伤的特定影响模式因其遗传基因而有所差异。     

父母“低头族”对青少年自伤行为的影响:基于体验回避模型的视角

本研究基于自伤的体验回避模型,考察父母“低头族”对青少年自伤行为的影响,并检验焦虑和体验回避的序列中介作用。以808名中学生为被试,采用父母低头族量表、抑郁-焦虑-压力简版量表、接纳与行动问卷第二版和青少年自我伤害行为问卷进行测试,结果发现：（1）父母“低头族”与青少年焦虑、体验回避、自伤行为呈显著正相关;焦虑、体验回避与自伤行为呈显著正相关;（2）焦虑和体验回避在父母“低头族”和青少年自伤行为之间均起部分中介作用;（3）焦虑和体验回避在父母“低头族”和青少年自伤行为之间构成序列中介,即父母“低头族”通过增加青少年的焦虑,从而提高体验回避倾向,进而增加青少年自伤行为。研究从情绪和应对手段角度来考察父母“低头族”对青少年自伤行为的作用机制,对青少年自伤行为的预防和干预具有启示意义。     

亲子关系和父母教育卷入对青少年抑郁、自伤和自杀意念的影响：挫败感和人生意义感的作用

基于生态系统理论和动机-意志整合模型,采用问卷法以930名青少年(年龄=15.24±1.66岁)及其父母为研究对象,构建一个有调节的中介模型,从家长与孩子双视角分析孩子体验到的亲子关系和父母教育卷入对青少年抑郁、自伤和自杀意念的影响路径。结果显示：(1)相比低亲子关系-低教育卷入一致的个体,高亲子关系-高教育卷入的青少年有着更低水平的挫败感,且相比于低亲子关系-高教育卷入的青少年,有着高亲子关系-低教育卷入的个体表现出更低水平的挫败感;(2)挫败感在亲子关系-教育卷入与青少年抑郁、自伤和自杀意念之间起部分中介作用;(3)人生意义感调节该中介模型后半段,即挫败感对青少年抑郁、自伤和自杀意念的影响,具体表现为随着人生意义感的增加,挫败感对抑郁、自伤和自杀意念的影响逐渐减小。研究从家庭关系中家长与孩子双视角,揭示了挫败感和人生意义感的中介与调节作用,为青少年抑郁、自伤和自杀意念的发生机制提供更多解释路径。     

BDNF基因、同伴关系与青少年早期抑郁：基于动态发展视角

青少年抑郁是遗传基因与环境动态交互作用的结果,但是现有研究忽视了抑郁遗传效应的发展动态性。本研究通过对1086名青少年(平均年龄12.32,50%女生)进行3年的追踪,分别从遗传效应的年龄差异以及遗传效应影响抑郁发展轨迹的角度,考察BDNF基因与同伴关系对青少年抑郁的动态影响。结果显示：(1)在3个时间点上,BDNF基因与同伴拒绝交互影响青少年抑郁,但其作用模式存在年龄差异：12岁时,MetMet基因型携带者对环境敏感性高于ValMet基因型携带者;13岁时,MetMet和ValVal基因型携带者对环境的敏感性均高于ValMet基因型携带者;14岁时,ValVal基因型携带者对环境的敏感性高于ValMet基因型携带者。(2)青少年早期抑郁呈线性增长趋势,但是抑郁初始水平与增长速度无关。(3) BDNF基因与同伴拒绝交互预测青少年抑郁的初始水平,相比ValMet基因型,携带MetMet基因型的青少年在经历同伴拒绝后抑郁初始水平更高。(4) BDNF基因显著预测青少年抑郁增长速度,相比ValMet基因型携带者,携带MetMet和ValVal基因型的青少年抑郁增长速度更快。     

青少年早期同伴拒绝、同伴侵害与抑郁的关系：交叉滞后分析

采用间隔1年的追踪设计,使用结构方程建模对1068名青少年早期个体的同伴拒绝、同伴侵害与抑郁间的关系进行交叉滞后分析。结果发现,（1）在不同时间点上,同伴拒绝、同伴侵害和青少年抑郁之间存在显著正相关;（2）先前的抑郁水平对随后个体遭受的身体侵害和关系侵害均有显著预测作用,而先前的同伴侵害不能显著预测随后青少年的抑郁水平。抑郁对同伴拒绝、以及同伴拒绝对抑郁的预测作用均不显著。（3）同伴拒绝、同伴侵害与抑郁间的关系具有跨性别的一致性。这表明,青少年早期同伴侵害和抑郁间存在单向预测关系,抑郁导致同伴侵害。     

亲子分离与青少年同伴侵害和抑郁的关系:一项追踪研究

采用追踪研究设计,对贵州省1094名青少年进行了间隔半年的两次测查,考察早期亲子分离对青少年后期同伴侵害经历及抑郁水平的影响及性别差异。结果表明：（1）早期亲子分离能显著增加T1同伴侵害和抑郁,并通过T1的同伴侵害和抑郁间接影响T2的同伴侵害和抑郁;（2）亲子分离、同伴侵害和抑郁的关系存在显著性别差异：在女生组中,早期亲子分离不仅能够显著增加T1抑郁水平,还通过影响T1抑郁间接影响T2的同伴侵害状况,且早期亲子分离也可以边缘显著预测T1的同伴侵害状况;在男生组中,亲子分离仅能显著预测T1的同伴侵害经历,对于T1抑郁及T2时间点的各变量则无显著影响;（3）无论是否受到亲子分离的影响,同伴侵害与青少年抑郁之间均存在相互作用关系。研究结果提示早期亲子分离会导致青少年后期同伴侵害经历及抑郁水平上升,且主要体现在女生群体中,这为经历亲子分离后青少年心理健康干预方案的制定提供了科学依据。     

青少年网络受欺负与自伤的关系:友谊质量与反刍思维的调节作用

为探讨青少年网络受欺负与自伤行为的关系,以及友谊质量和反刍思维在二者关系中的调节作用,采用青少年自我伤害问卷、网络受欺负问卷、友谊质量问卷等对1805名青少年进行调查。结果表明,网络受欺负对自伤行为有正向预测作用,且友谊质量和反刍思维共同调节二者的关系,即在低友谊质量高反刍思维的情况下,网络受欺负对青少年自伤行为有明显影响。提示心理干预者要注意帮助网络受欺负者寻找同伴友谊情感支持和构建理性健康认知模式。     

父母支持、友谊支持对早中期青少年孤独感和抑郁的影响

以391名初一(青少年早期)和高一(青少年中期)学生为被试, 探讨了父母支持、友谊支持对孤独感和抑郁的影响模式。结果表明：(1)友谊支持是预测孤独感的更好指标, 父母支持是预测抑郁的更好指标; (2)父母支持和友谊支持仅对早期青少年孤独感和抑郁的影响存在显著交互作用, 但作用模式不同：父母支持可增强高友谊支持对降低青少年孤独感的作用(增强模式)而友谊支持可补偿低父母支持对降低青少年孤独感的作用(补偿模式); 两种支持系统可相互增强对方对降低青少年抑郁水平的效应(相互增强模式)。(3)与青少年早期不同, 青少年中期父母支持和友谊支持两个系统以“独立模式”而非“交互模式”影响青少年的情绪适应。结果提示, 家庭和同伴系统对青少年情绪适应的影响可能遵循多种模式, 但分别适用于不同适应问题和发展阶段。     

COMT基因Val158Met多态性与同伴关系对青少年抑郁的影响

以1048名汉族青少年为被试,采用问卷法和基因分型技术,综合运用传统回归分析和新兴的再参数化回归分析,考察COMT基因Val158Met多态性与同伴关系对青少年抑郁的交互作用模式及其性别差异。结果发现,COMT基因与同伴接纳和同伴拒绝交互预测青少年抑郁,具体表现为,在低同伴接纳或高同伴拒绝环境中,携带ValVal基因型的青少年抑郁水平高于Met等位基因携带者;在高同伴接纳或低同伴拒绝环境中,携带ValVal基因型的青少年抑郁水平低于Met等位基因携带者。此外,COMT基因与同伴接纳和同伴拒绝的交互作用与男生抑郁的关联更加密切。结果显示,COMT基因与同伴关系的交互效应为不同易感性模型提供了证据,而且该基因×环境交互效应存在性别差异。     

Relations with Parents and with Peers,Temperament, and Trajectories of Depressed Mood During Early Adolescence

The present study examined (a) whether groups of children can be empirically identified with distinct longitudinal profiles of depressed mood from late childhood through early adolescence, (b) to what extent these different longitudinal depression profiles are predicted by problematic relations with parents, same-sex peers, and other-sex peers, and (c) what role individuals' temperamental characteristics play in this context. Based on a sample of 414 early adolescents (197 girls), four groups were identified with distinct longitudinal profiles of depressed mood between ages 11 and 14: One group with consistently low levels of depressed mood, another with consistently moderate levels of depressed mood, a third group whose depressed mood increased sharply from late childhood through early adolescence, and a fourth group who already showed clinical-range levels of depressed mood during late childhood and whose depressive feelings increased even slightly more thereafter. Subsequent analyses revealed that rejection by same-sex peers was related to the odds of following an increasing trajectory of depressed mood, but only for girls with a highly reactive temperament. A problematic relationship with parents increased the odds of an elevated trajectory of depressed mood regardless of individual temperament. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Non-Suicidal Self-Injury and Adolescents Attachment with Peers and Mother: The Mediating Role of Identity Synthesis and Confusion

Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is highly prevalent in adolescents. Secure attachment with family and peers can reduce vulnerability to NSSI and can optimize the outcomes of developmental challenges such as identity formation. Problems experienced in these developmental processes and contexts can increase vulnerability to NSSI. Hence, the present study examined associations between attachment with mother and peers, identity formation, and NSSI, using self-report questionnaires in 528 high school students (Mean age = 15.0 years, SD = 1.84, 11–19 years, 50.4 % females). The lifetime prevalence of NSSI was found to be 14.2 %. Mediation analyses indicated that peer trust had a significant negative indirect effect on NSSI via identity synthesis and confusion. The positive association between peer alienation and NSSI was partially mediated by a lack of identity synthesis. Further, the pathways from maternal trust and alienation to NSSI were fully mediated by both identity confusion and synthesis. Clinical implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Adolescent depression and risk factors

Seventy-nine high school seniors were administered the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), as well as a questionnaire on parent relationships, peer relationships, positive and negative feelings including suicidal thoughts, and lifestyle variables including academic performance, exercise, and drug use. The group of adolescents who scored above the clinical cutoff for depression on the CES-D (n = 29) had poorer relations with parents. Further, the incidence of paternal depression in that group was greater. The depressed adolescents also had less optimal peer relationships, fewer friends, and were less popular. They experienced less happiness and more frequent suicidal thoughts. They spent less time doing homework, had a lower grade point average, and spent less time exercising. The depressed group also reported more use of marijuana and cocaine. A stepwise regression indicated that physical affection with parents, homework, well-being, exercise, happiness, and parent relations explained 55% of the variance.     

Correlates of Co-rumination in Non-clinical Adolescents

Co-rumination involves excessively discussing personal problems with peers. This study examined correlates of co-rumination in a sample of 233 adolescents aged 12–15 years. Participants completed a battery of self-report questionnaires including the Co-rumination Scale. Results first of all showed that the Co-rumination Scale consists of three factors that can be labeled as ‘comprehension’, ‘frequency’, and ‘detailed information’. Further, results showed that co-rumination, and in particular the factor of comprehension, was positively associated with symptoms of depression under the condition that communication with peers was low. Thus, in the absence of communication with peers, youngsters seem to co-ruminate with their best friend in order to get a better understanding of their problems. This suggests that co-rumination can best be seen as a behavioral coping strategy to deal with depressed mood.     

Peer Influence and Nonsuicidal Self Injury: Longitudinal Results in Community and Clinically-Referred Adolescent Samples

Research suggests that adolescents’ engagement in nonsuicidal self-injurious (NSSI) behaviors may be increasing over time, yet little is known regarding distal longitudinal factors that may promote engagement in these behaviors. Data from two longitudinal studies are presented to examine whether NSSI may be associated with peer influence processes. Study 1 included 377 adolescents from a community-based sample; Study 2 included 140 clinically-referred adolescents recruited from a psychiatric inpatient facility. In Study 1, adolescents’ NSSI was examined at baseline and one year later. Adolescents’ nominated best friend reported their own levels of NSSI. In Study 2, adolescents’ NSSI was examined at baseline as well as 9 and 18-months post-baseline. Adolescents’ perceptions of their friends’ engagement in self-injurious behavior (including suicidality) and depressed mood also were examined at all three time points. Baseline depressive symptoms were measured in both studies; gender and age were examined as moderators of peer influence effects. Results from both studies supported longitudinal peer socialization effects of friends’ self-injurious behavior on adolescents’ own NSSI for girls, but not for boys, even after controlling for depressive symptoms as a predictor. Study 1 suggested socialization effects mostly for younger youth. Results from Study 2 also suggested longitudinal socialization effects, as well as peer selection effects; adolescents’ NSSI was associated with increasing perceptions of their friends’ engagement in depressive/self-injurious thoughts and behavior. Findings contribute to the nascent literature on longitudinal predictors of NSSI and to work on peer influence.     

Trajectories of Social Anxiety during Adolescence and Relations with Cognition, Social Competence, and Temperament

This cohort-sequential study examined developmental trajectories of social anxiety in a nonclinical sample (N?=?331, 161 girls) aged 9 to 17 years at initial and 12 to 21 years at final assessment. We tested whether variables assessing cognition, social competence, and temperament discriminated between the trajectories. Variables were collected from different sources: participants, independent observers, parents, and teachers. Using Latent Class Growth Modeling (LCGM) we identified three distinct social anxiety trajectory groups: i) high and changing; ii) moderate and decreasing; and iii) low and decreasing. Multinomial regression analyses showed that the cognition variables, negative interpretations of ambiguous social situations and self-focused attention, differentiated between all three trajectories. A lack of social skills and having social problems at school were specifically related to the chance of following the high trajectory versus the moderate trajectory. Neuroticism differentiated between the low and moderate trajectories. Findings indicate that adolescents at risk of belonging to a high social anxiety trajectory can be discriminated from peers belonging to a less anxious trajectory using both cognition and social competence variables.     

Peer relations among adolescents with female same-sex parents

This study examined associations among family type (same-sex vs. opposite-sex parents), adolescent gender, family and relationship variables, and the peer relations of adolescents. Participants included 44 adolescents parented by same-sex female couples and 44 adolescents parented by opposite-sex couples, matched on demographic characteristics and drawn from a national sample. On both self-reported and peer-reported measures of relations with peers, adolescents were functioning well, and the quality of their peer relations was not associated with family type. Regardless of family type, adolescents whose parents described closer relationships with them reported higher quality peer relations and more friends in school and were rated as more central in their friendship networks.     

Parent and peer attachment in early adolescent depression

Insecure attachment relations have been theorized to play a significant role in the development of depressogenic modes of adaptation and to thus form a vulnerability factor for the emergence of depressive disorder in children. This study examined security of parent and peer attachment among four groups of early adolescents: clinically depressed, nondepressed psychiatric controls, nonpsychiatric controls, and adolescents with resolved depression. Depressed adolescents reported significantly less secure parent attachment than either of the control groups, and less secure peer attachment than the nonpsychiatric control group. Attachment security of adolescents with resolved depression was on a par with the nonpsychiatric control group. Among all psychiatric patients, security of attachment to parents was negatively correlated with severity of depression according to interview and self-report ratings. Less secure attachment to parents, but generally not to peers, was also related to more maladaptive attributional styles, presence of separation anxiety disorder, and history of suicidal ideation.     

Relation of Depression and Anxiety to Self‐ and Peer‐Reported Relational Aggression

The primary purpose of this multimethod and multimeasure study was to identify how the peer relationships of Australian adolescents (ages 9–15 years; N = 335) at school, including relational aggression and victimization, correlated with their symptoms of depression and anxiety. Moreover, relational aggression and victimization were measured via both self‐ and peer report, and discrepancies between reports were considered as correlates of symptoms and peer relationship status. Adolescents who reported more symptoms of depression and anxiety also self‐reported more relational victimization and reported their peers as less trustworthy. Adolescents who overreported their own relational victimization and aggression compared with peer report had more symptoms compared with those who agreed with their peers or underreported their aggression and victimization. Adolescents who underreported their own aggression were not only more socially prominent but were also more disliked by their peers. When considered independent of self‐reports, no measure of peer‐reported peer status, aggression, or victimization was associated with depressive symptoms; but adolescents reported as more accepted by their peers had fewer anxiety symptoms. Longitudinal research should be conducted to examine adolescents' increasing socioemotional problems as correlates of discrepancies between self‐ and peer reports of relational aggression and victimization. Aggr. Behav. 38:16‐30, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Peer influence and adolescent nonsuicidal self-injury: A theoretical review of mechanisms and moderators

Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) is an increasingly prevalent health risk behavior among adolescents and represents a significant public health concern. Although researchers have identified numerous antecedents or risk factors that precede engagement in NSSI behaviors, few studies have examined the role of peer influence processes. Yet, recent research suggests that adolescents may be more likely to engage in NSSI when close friends or other peers engage in similar behaviors. The following paper reviews past research on peer influence effects, including potential mechanisms and moderating variables. Methodological considerations for future research on peer influence and NSSI are discussed.