The Influence of Indirect Knowledge of Previous Performance on Ratings of Present Performance: The Effects of Job Familiarity and Rater Training

In a 2 × 2 × 2 crossed factorial design, trained or untrained subjects viewed a videotape and evaluated performance on either a familiar (college lecturer) or unfamiliar (salesperson) job. Prior to viewing the videotape, some subjects reviewed positive information about the ratee's prior performance, whereas other subjects did not review any prior performance information. To determine whether assimilation or contrast effects occurred, we compared ratings provided by subjects who reviewed positive information about prior performance with ratings provided by subjects who did not review any prior performance information. A three-way interaction was obtained. Ratings of performance on the familiar job by untrained or trained subjects revealed only a small assimilation effect. However, when rating performance on the unfamiliar job, a large assimilation effect was observed among untrained subjects, whereas a large contrast effect was observed among trained subjects. The results indicate that rater error training may reverse, rather than reduce or eliminate, rating errors that arise from knowledge of a ratee's prior performance. Implications for further understanding and reducing assimilation and contrast effects are discussed.     

跨职能知识共享对团队创新绩效的影响机制探索

以扎根理论的研究方法,从知识有效共享的角度分析了跨职能整合对团队创新绩效的影响。结果证明：（1）成员之间的知识共享是实现跨职能整合和提高产品创新绩效的关键机制;（2）知识共享行为受到创新氛围、共同目标和组织支持的共同影响;（3）认知障碍是观点冲突产生的主要原因,而知识共享有助于冲突的解决。在此基础上,本研究对比了不同管理措施对团队创新绩效的作用,为组织管理实践提供了借鉴。     

The Validity of Job Knowledge Measures

The validity of written job knowledge tests as predictors of job performance and training success was examined. Based on a sample of 363,528 persons and 502 coefficients, meta-analyses were performed to investigate the extent of validity generalization and the effects of two hypothesized moderator variables: content similarity and job complexity. Corrected mean validities were 0.45 for studies predicting job performance and 0.47 for studies of training success. Support was found for both moderators since validities were higher for high complexity jobs and when job-test content similarity was high. The implications of this study for personnel selection and research in the area of work performance are discussed.     

Effects of Knowledge Organization on Task Performance

This study proposes a knowledge organization facilitating human performance on scientifically relevant recall and problem-solving tasks. This organization is structured hierarchically so as to describe knowledge at different levels of detail; it is also task-adapted so that higher levels include information most important for implementing the intended tasks. The efficacy of this organization was assessed by two experiments, in experiment I, college-level subjects read a text and performed special training tasks to acquire knowledge of a physics topic organized either in the preceding hierarchical, or in a detailed single-level .organization; a third group read the single-level organization twice. In a subsequent test, subjects with the hierarchical organization performed appreciably better on tasks of recall, error correction, and knowledge modification. In experiment 2, subjects acquired knowledge in either of two alternative hierarchical organizations of the same physics topic, but with information distributed differently over the levels. As expected, in a subsequent test subjects performed better on those tasks depending on information from higher levels of their hierarchical organization. The specially designed training was effective in producing the desired organization of a subject's internal knowledge, but subjects with lower physics grades seemed less able to assimilate and use a hierarchical organization. Similar conclusions were obtained from a third experiment in which internal, knowledge organization was inferred from an analysis of free-recall protocols.     

Cultural Values and Performance Appraisal: Assessing the Effects of Rater Self-Construal on Performance Ratings

Much of the prior research investigating the influence of cultural values on performance ratings has focused either on conducting cross-national comparisons among raters or using cultural level individualism/collectivism scales to measure the effects of cultural values on performance ratings. Recent research has shown that there is considerable within country variation in cultural values, i.e. people in one country can be more individualistic or collectivistic in nature. Taking the latter perspective, the present study used Markus and Kitayama's (1991) conceptualization of independent and interdependent self-construals as measures of individual variations in cultural values to investigate within culture variations in performance ratings. Results suggest that rater self-construal has a significant influence on overall performance evaluations; specifically, raters with a highly interdependent self-construal tend to show a preference for interdependent ratees, whereas raters high on independent self-construal do not show a preference for specific type of ratees when making overall performance evaluations. Although rater self-construal significantly influenced overall performance evaluations, no such effects were observed for specific dimension ratings. Implications of these results for performance appraisal research and practice are discussed.     

知识型员工共享领导对团队绩效的影响:团队学习能力的中介效应

对27个单位,92个团队共687名知识型员工调查,目的是基于团队学习能力视角探讨知识型员工共享领导对团队绩效的影响。首先用HLM6.08将收集到的数据从个体层面上升到团队层面,然后采用共享领导二阶模型初步得出团队学习能力在共享领导与团队绩效之间起中介作用,最后借助LISEREL8.70统计软件从共享领导各维度探讨团队学习能力的中介效应。结果表明共享领导与团队绩效之间具有显著的正相关关系,且共享领导通过团队学习能力的中介效应影响团队绩效。     

The Effects of Differing Knowledge Transfer Strategies on Group Decision Making and Performance

Encouraging reflection on one's existing knowledge in a group setting increases shared understanding, makes information available for problem solving, and makes it easier for members to show and to be shown the merit of others' preferences. However, it is also possible that attempting to constrain the process by which problem solvers manage this reflection process may prevent them from effectively tailoring their approach to different problems. The current research focuses on how the nature of different knowledge transfer strategies impacts problem solving processes and outcomes by examining manipulations of, or constraints to, problem solvers' approach to knowledge transfer. Participants were directed to generate associated knowledge in preparation for answering a series of estimation items, either in a group or individually. We found that groups using a shared reflection process (as opposed to reflecting at an individual member level) were able to give more weight to the inputs of their more expert members and that groups outperformed individuals. We discuss the process of promoting knowledge transfer in a group context relative to an individual context and relate this to the concept of task demonstrability. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Testing for Independent Effects of Prosocial Knowledge and Technical Knowledge on Skill and Performance

This study extended previous research (Motowidlo, Borman, & Schmit, 1997) on antecedents of job performance by testing for independent effects of prosocial and technical knowledge in a sample of 208 medical students. Results show that prosocial knowledge is uncorrelated with technical knowledge and that it contributes incremental variance to clinical performance in Primary Care after accounting for technical knowledge and clinical skill. Findings indicate Agreeableness is an important correlate of prosocial knowledge but not of technical knowledge. Unexpectedly, cognitive ability is not significantly related to either kind of knowledge or clinical performance. These results reinforce the idea that knowledge is a primary determinant of performance and that one type of knowledge, prosocial, has roots in Agreeableness, whereas a different type of knowledge, technical, does not.     

Influence of Domain Knowledge on Monitoring Performance Across the Life Span

Two studies were conducted to investigate effects of domain knowledge on metacognitive monitoring across the life span in materials of different complexity. Participants from 4 age groups (3rd-grade children, adolescents, younger and older adults) were compared using an expert–novice paradigm. In Study 1, soccer experts’ and novices’ ease-of-learning judgments (EOLs), judgments of learning (JOLs), and confidence judgments (CJs) were contrasted when memorizing soccer-related word pairs. In Study 2, monitoring judgments (i.e., a rating of global comprehension, JOLs, and CJs) were collected in regards to a soccer-related narrative. The results of both approaches showed that experts’ better memory performance obtained in both studies was not always accompanied by advantages in monitoring performance. In Study 1, experts of all ages outperformed novices in monitoring accuracy. In Study 2, no benefits of expertise on monitoring were found; in children, novices even surpassed experts in monitoring quality. In both studies, the most consistent influence of previous domain knowledge on monitoring performance concerned more optimistic judgments of experts compared with novices, regardless of stimuli and recall format. In sum, our results document a twofold effect of expertise on monitoring. Although domain-specific knowledge enhances monitoring performance in some situations, more optimistic estimates, presumably due to the application of a familiarity heuristic, typically reduce experts’ monitoring accuracy.     

The Predictive Role of Simulations in Assessing Military Performance

The current study assessed the predictive validity of simulations to improve the military selection system. Four navy simulations were developed and their predictive validity was measured. The performance of 1007 Israeli navy soldiers was measured in a longitudinal study, which was carried on for almost two years. Participants’ performance in four simulations (naval-navigation test, raft sailing, rubber boat [zodiac] mounting, and military tent assembly) was measured and used as a behavioral predictor for their performance at the end of their first year of active military service on combat ships. All but the raft sailing simulation predicted participants’ performance.     

领导-团队投入匹配对团队绩效的影响：团队满意度氛围的作用

基于领导-团队匹配的视角,研究以133名领导和645名成员的团队配对数据,采用二次多项式回归与响应面分析对领导工作投入与团队投入氛围的一致性匹配和不一致性匹配,以及团队满意度氛围如何影响团队绩效进行了探讨。结果发现：领导工作投入与团队投入氛围一致与不一致相比,团队绩效较好;并且一致性匹配具有加强效应,即当领导工作投入与团队投入氛围一致时,团队绩效随着双方投入的增加而提高;同时,团队满意度氛围在领导-团队投入的一致性匹配与团队绩效的线性关系中起到部分中介作用。     

Assessing the Burdens of Leadership: Effects of Formal Leadership Roles on Individual Performance Over Time

This study adopted a role-based perspective in examining whether changes in performance over time (i.e., dynamic criteria) were a function of changes in individual leadership role responsibilities. Longitudinal data from captains in the modern era of the National Hockey League ( N = 201) were used to test a dynamic criterion hypothesis using multilevel growth modeling. Time ( k = 10) was modeled as a random effect, whereas captain status (i.e., leadership role responsibility) was included as a time-varying covariate. Individual performance was measured as the adjusted points (goals scored plus assists adjusted for individual and historical effects). Results of a series of model building steps that included the examination of alternative complex error structures indicated an overall negative performance trend. Those seasons in which a player assumed formal leadership responsibilities (i.e., team captain) were associated with better performance compared to seasons in which the player had no leadership responsibilities. These results were found to be robust even after controlling for individual performance in the previous season. Results are discussed in terms of the possible positive implications for individual performance and the motivation to lead through developing a culture in which leadership positions are highly valued by the organization, visible to others on the team, and where leadership responsibilities do not interfere with task performance.     

Relative Effects of Three Knowledge of Results Treatments on Coincidence-Anticipation Performance

The relative effects of three knowledge of results (KR) treatments on performance of a complex coincidence-anticipation task requiring speed and accuracy were studied. Male volunteers (n=75) were assigned to one of three treatments: no KR, quantitative KR, or qualitative KR. No significant differences in the performance of treatment groups were found. It was suggested that the task itself may have provided enough information for fairly accurate performance.     

Assessing Multicultural Competence: Perceived Versus Demonstrated Performance

This study compares self‐report scores generated by the Multicultural Awareness Knowledge Skills Survey‐Counselor Edition‐Revised (B. S. K. Kim, B. Y. Cartwright, P. A. Asay, & M. J. D'Andrea, 2003) with independent observer ratings of actual videotaped demonstrations of multicultural competence in response to a preselected case vignette. Implications for counselor training and future research are discussed.     

The Impact of Computerized Performance Monitoring and Prior Performance Knowledge on Performance Evaluation1

Despite claims that computerized performance monitoring (CPM) systems provide objective performance data and thus foster accurate employee evaluations, few research studies have examined the impact of CPM data on the performance appraisal process. A laboratory experiment was conducted to assess the impact of prior performance level on requests for computerized performance information, and the influence of both prior performance level and requested information on performance evaluation. Forty-four male and female undergraduates electronically monitored four simulated employees whose prior performance was either high or low and whose performance during the monitoring period was either high or low. Results indicated that prior performance level and employee performance during the monitoring period independently influenced both current and future performance ratings. Further, when the simulated employee performed at a level incongruent with her prior performance, subjects requested more data about the employee's performance, were less certain about their ratings of the employee's current and future performance, and rated the employee's current performance as more variable than when the employee performed at a level congruent with prior performance. These results indicate that use of CPM systems that allow on-line access to employee performance and that record requested information may increase performance evaluation accuracy by facilitating the implementation of search strategies best suited to specific appraisal tasks and minimizing memory-related biases. However, such systems may not eliminate the effects of attention/encoding biases.     

A Critique of Six Measures for Assessing Creativity

Tests and measures of creativity are critical instruments guiding educators in identifying highly productive individuals capable of contributing insightful and far reaching solutionsto ourproblem ridden civilization. This paperanalyzesand critiques six popularlyused measures ofcreativity: 1) The Torrance Test of Creative Thinking by E. Paul Torrance (1966); 2) The Creativity Assessment Packet by frank Williams (1980); three subtests of divergent production of the 3) Structure ofthe Intellect Learning Abilities Test by Mary Meeker; 4) Thinking Creatively With Sounds and Words by E. Paul Torrance, Joe Khatena and Bert F. Cunnington (1973); 5) Thinking Creatively In Action and Movement by E. Paul Torrance (1981); 6) Khatena-Torrance Creative Perception Inventory by Joe Khatena & E. Paul Torrance (1976). Reviewed through personal observation and published literature, these tests reveal a capacity as partial measures of divergent and productive thinking. Findings indicate that updating and upgrading of several tests with thought toward key constituent factors of the creative process would be qualitatively beneficial to test design. Harnessing creative potential is a main concern of educators hoping to prepare America's youth for a fast paced and rapidly changing existence. The questions at the heart of this concern: what creativity is, what constitutes creative thinking, and what the creative individual is like, have given birth to many tests and biographical checklists. Understanding the dimensions ofcreativity is difficult at best, and assessing it through tests or biographical checklists is even more problematic. Through direct examination and a review ofthe literature, this paper critiques six such measures for validity, reliability and utility. Those measures included: the Creativity Assessment Packet (CAP), the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (TICT), Thinking Creatively in Action and Movement, Thinking Creatively with Sound and Words, Khatena-Torrance Creative Perception Inventory, and three divergent thinking subtests ofthe Structure of Intellect Learning Abilities Test (SOl-LA).     

Assessing Adolescent and Adult Attachment: A Review of Current Self-Report Measures

Increased interest in attachment theory among counseling researchers and practitioners has led to the development of several measures of attachment-related constructs. Following a brief overview of the theoretical foundations of attachment theory as conceptualized by Ainsworth (1989) and Bowlby (1988), the authors of this article review four self-report measures of adolescent and adult attachment. Many considerations for the selection and use of these instruments in future counseling research and assessment are discussed.     

The Influence of Contextual Factors on Afro-American and Euro-American Children's Performance: Effects of Movement Opportunity and Music

The present study sought to further establish that contextual factors informed by certain postulated cultural experiences could influence performance on a learning task. Towards this end, low income Afro-American and Euro-American children learned to pair pictures in an acquisition context that allowed for them to coordinate movement with music (High Movement Expressive [HME]) and in an acquisition context which allowed for little movement opportunity and no music (Low Movement Expressive [LME]). Children were subsequently tested for picture pair retention in a context where music was present or in a context where music was absent. The findings revealed that Afro-American children's tested performance was superior with the HME acquisition context, while Euro-American children's performance was superior with the LME context. In addition, music present at testing context seemed to have an independent enhancing effect only on Afro-American children's performance. The cultural and educational implications of these findings are discussed as are recommendations for future research.     

Assessing Knowledge Through Gesture: Using Children's Hands to Read Their Minds

Is the information that gesture provides about a child's understanding of a task accessible not only to experimenters who are trained in coding gesture but also to untrained observers? Twenty adults were asked to describe the reasoning of 12 different children, each videotaped responding to a Piagetian conservation task. Six of the children on the videotape produced gestures that conveyed the same information as their nonconserving spoken explanations, and 6 produced gestures that conveyed different information from their nonconserving spoken explanations. The adult observers displayed more uncertainty in their appraisals of children who produced different information in gesture and speech than in their appraisals of children who produced the same information in gesture and speech. Moreover, the adults were able to incorporate the information conveyed in the children's gestures into their own spoken appraisals of the children's reasoning. These data suggest that, even without training, adults form impressions of children's knowledge based not only on what children say with their mouths but also on what they say with their hands.