Animal-Assisted Therapy with Farm Animals for Persons with Psychiatric Disorders: Effects on Anxiety and Depression,a Randomized Controlled Trial

This study examined the effects of Animal-Assisted Therapy with farm animals during a 12 weeks' intervention on anxiety and depression among psychiatric patients by using a randomized controlled trial with a follow-up investigation at 6 months. Ninety adult patients were included, with 41 completers in the treatment group and 28 in the control group. Anxiety measured using Spielberger State Anxiety Inventory did not decrease significantly during the intervention for the treatment group but was significantly lower at follow-up compared with baseline (p = 0.002) and with the end of the intervention (p = 0.004). There was no significant change for the control group. Depression measured using Beck Depression Inventory was significantly lower at follow-up compared with baseline for both groups, but there were no significant differences between the groups.     

Cognitive Behaviour Therapy for Schizophrenia in Patients with Mild to Moderate Substance Misuse Problems

Rates of substance misuse are high among patients with schizophrenia. Cognitive therapies have been developed separately for both problems but little is known about outcome for this group of dual diagnosed patients. Data from a major trial of cognitive behaviour therapy for psychosis was therefore sub‐analysed to determine whether this therapy is effective in those with schizophrenia and mild to moderate substance misuse. During the original study patients received a brief cognitive behaviour therapy‐based intervention for schizophrenia delivered by trained and supervised nurses. The control group received care as usual. The outcome measures included: total psychopathology using the Comprehensive Psychopathological Rating Scale (CPRS) and Health of the Nation Outcome Scale (HoNOS), change in schizophrenic positive symptoms using Schizophrenia Change Scale (SCR), anxiety using the Brief Scale for Anxiety (BAS), depression using the Montgomery‐Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) and insight using the Assessment of Insight Scale, at baseline and end of therapy. In the original study, patients who received cognitive behaviour therapy showed improvement in overall symptomatology (p = 0.01), insight (p = 0.00) and depression (p = 0.00) compared with the control group. In the present sub‐analysis, no interaction was found between treatment group and presence or absence of substance misuse. There was a reduction in substance misuse after treatment in both the cognitive behaviour therapy and control groups but this did not differ between them. It appears that mild to moderate degrees of substance misuse did not change the outcome of cognitive behaviour therapy for psychosis in this sub‐analysis.     

Six‐month follow‐up of two mother–infant psychotherapies: Convergence of therapeutic outcomes

Fifty‐eight mothers and infants participating in two infant–mother psychotherapeutic interventions in a comparative infant–mother clinical intervention study were followed six months after treatment ended. One treatment was an infant‐led psychotherapy, Watch, Wait, and Wonder (WWW). The other was a more traditional mother–infant psychodynamic psychotherapy (PPT). Infants ranged in age from 10 to 30 months at the outset of treatment, which took place in weekly sessions over approximately five months. Results indicated that positive effects observed from the beginning to the end of treatment in both treatment groups in infant symptoms, parenting stress, and mother–infant interaction were maintained or improved further at six‐month follow‐up. Additionally, decreased maternal depression, gains in infant cognitive development and emotion regulation, and improved infant–mother attachment security or organization had been observed posttreatment only in the WWW group. Interestingly, between the posttreatment to follow‐up period the PPT group also showed such gains. Thus, for these variables it would be more accurate to say that the outcomes were similar for the two treatment groups but change emerged at a different pace. Nevertheless, an advantage persisted in the WWW group in relation to mothers' comfort dealing with infant behaviors and their ratings of parenting stress which improved more in this group from the end of treatment to follow‐up. The direct inclusion of the infant as an initiator in WWW was set forth as an explanation of differentially timed treatment effects. ©2002 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.     

Individual and Group Meaning: Exploring the Reciprocal Relation

Abstract

Group construct systems were defined through application of a group construct grid that elicited types of groups in which an individual had participated or closely observed. The Group Grid was administered at the beginning and the end of a 4-month graduate class. The meanings of groups to participants were interpreted by examining changes in Group Grids over time and in relation to high and low levels of group performance. The meaning of individuals to the group was assessed by peer evaluations given at the end of the project. High and low levels of peer evaluation were then predicted by an individual's Group Grid measures. The most consistent findings were that greater variation in application regarding types of groups and characteristics about groups showed strong associations with both high levels of group performance and high levels of peer evaluation. Suggestions are given for future research     

The Moderating Effect of Within‐Group Similarity on Change in a Strengths‐Based Programme for Incarcerated Young Men

Many youth who are incarcerated within juvenile correctional facilities experience mental health disorders, histories of victimization and suicide ideation. Strengths‐based intervention programmes are intended to enhance participants' resilience against such challenges. However, little is known about how the composition of intervention groups contributes to programmes' efficacy. This study addresses the impact of within‐group similarity on the success of a strengths‐based intervention for incarcerated young men (n = 141). Similarity was assessed in terms of self‐reported demographics and behaviours and belief systems. Youths' masculine ideology, caring and cooperative behaviours, ethnic pride and respect for differences, self‐efficacy regarding education and non‐violence, and attitudes about criminal behaviour were measured before and after intervention. Results indicate that participants' caring and cooperative behaviour increased during the intervention. However, their education‐related self‐efficacy was reduced, and the perceived benefits of criminal activity increased. These changes were moderated by group composition: less similarity between participants and their group members was associated with less negative change. In the context of juvenile corrections facilities, where staying the same may be a relatively positive outcome, perhaps the more relevant question is not which processes and characteristics of others better enable youth to change but which experiences help them retain positive aspects of themselves. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Associations between young children's emotion attributions and prediction of outcome in differing social situations

Associations between young children's attributions of emotion at different points in a story, and with regard to their own prediction about the story's outcome, were investigated using two hypothetical scenarios of social and emotional challenge (social entry and negative event). First grade children (N=250) showed an understanding that emotions are tied to situational cues by varying the emotions they attributed both between and within scenarios. Furthermore, emotions attributed to the main protagonist at the beginning of the scenarios were differentially associated with children's prediction of a positive or negative outcome and with the valence of the emotion attributed at the end of the scenario. Gender differences in responses to some items were also found.     

Psychosocial enhancement of immunocompetence in a geriatric population

This study assessed the enhancement of immunocompetence by relaxation and social contact in 45 geriatric residents of independent-living facilities. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three protocols: relaxation training, social contact, or no contact. Subjects in the relaxation and social-contact conditions were seen individually three times a week for a month. Blood samples and self-report data were obtained at baseline, at the end of the intervention, and at a 1-month follow-up. At the end of the intervention, the relaxation group showed a significant increase in natural killer cell activity, and significant decreases in antibody titers to Herpes simplex virus and self-rated distress; the other two groups showed nonsignificant changes. There was a general increase in the T-lymphocyte response to phytohemagglutinin stimulation at the end of the intervention, with greater change at lower mitogen concentrations. These data suggest that cellular immunocompetence may be enhanced by psychosocial interventions.     

“Don't let the group down”: Facets of instrumentality moderate the motivating effects of groups in a field experiment

The motivating effects of group work as compared with individual work are not restricted to the research laboratory but have recently been documented in existing groups performing meaningful tasks. Freestyle swimmers at the 2008 Olympics were shown to swim faster in relay groups than in the individual competitions when their contribution was highly instrumental for the relay group (i.e., indispensable) because of their serial position in the group. The present study replicated and extended this work, aggregating a larger sample from major sports events (N = 199 freestyle swimmers) that also allowed for a competitive test between the instrumentality approach and explanations based on differences in the starting procedures of relay and individual competitions. Consistent with expectancy value models of effort expenditure in groups, swimmers were faster in the relay groups as compared with individual competitions only when (i) a swimmer's performance was highly instrumental for the group's performance (i.e., later serial position in the relay) and (ii) the group's performance was highly instrumental for a positive group outcome (i.e., the relay group had a good chance of winning a medal). The data were not consistent with an explanation of performance differences merely as a result of different starting procedures. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Therapeutic System as Viewed by Depressive Inpatients and Outcome: An Expanded Study

In an expansion of a previous study, we examined in which way depressive inpatients' views of psychiatrists' and significant others' attitudes toward the severity of their illness were related to outcome. Fifty-six patients were asked a two-part question —“Who regards your illness as being more severe: (a) you or your significant others; (b) you or your psychiatrist?” Two subsamples of patients were identified: those who viewed the psychiatrists' and significant others' attitudes as similar and those who viewed them as dissimilar. Both groups showed substantial and significant improvement during hospital treatment; but the group that viewed the attitudes held by psychiatrists and significant others as dissimilar had significantly fewer depressive symptoms by the end of a 3-month followup period. The findings were consistent with those of the original study, and with the hypothesis as derived from the Mental Research Institute brief therapy principles.     

Cognitive restructuring treatment: A controlled trial with anxious patients

Cognitive restructuring, modified systematic desensitization and a combined treatment (cognitive behaviour modification) were compared with a no-treatment control group, using a simple randomized design. Twenty seven general anxiety out-patients selected from the hospital waiting list were used as subjects. Assessments were made at the beginning and end of treatment, and at follow-up 1 month later. The assessments included two subjective anxiety measures, the Zung self-rating anxiety scale and fear thermometer scores, a behavioural anxiety measure, a measure of cognitive anxiety as estimated by a diary recording of thinking time, fear survey schedule scores and I/E scores.Cognitive behaviour modification was found to be a superior form of treatment, relative to the no-treatment control and the other active treatment groups as assessed by FSS intensity score. The cognitive behaviour modification group showed greater improvement than the cognitive restructuring group on the diary anxiety scores. The results also demonstrated a relationship between outcome and initial severity of condition. The higher the subjects' initial scores on neurotic symptoms and subjective anxiety level, the greater the degree of positive change after treatment. Moreover, subjects with high levels of internal control prior to treatment responded most to therapy.     

Randomized controlled trial of an intervention to change cardiac misconceptions in myocardial infarction patients

There is converging evidence that changing beliefs about an illness leads to positive recovery outcomes. However, cardiac misconceptions interventions have been investigated mainly in Angina or Coronary Heart Disease patients, and less in patients following Myocardial Infarction (MI). In these patients, cardiac misconceptions may play a role in the adjustment or lifestyle changes. This article reports a randomized controlled trial of an intervention designed to reduce the strength of misconceptions in patients after a first MI. The primary outcome was the degree of change in misconceptions and the secondary outcomes were: exercise, smoking status, return to work and mood (anxiety and depression). Patients in the intervention condition (n = 60) were compared with a control group (n = 67) receiving usual care. Both groups were evaluated at baseline and 4, 8 and 12 months after hospital discharge. There was a significant time-by-group interaction for the total score of cardiac misconceptions. Patients in the intervention group significantly decreased their total score of cardiac misconceptions at 4 months compared with the control group and this difference was sustained over time. Patients in the intervention group were also more likely to exercise at the follow-up period after MI than the control group. This intervention was effective in reducing the strength of cardiac misconceptions in MI patients and had a positive impact on health behaviour outcomes. These results support the importance of misconceptions in health behaviours and the utility of belief change interventions in promoting health in patients with Myocardial Infarction.     

Scientific reasoning in a real‐world context: The effect of prior belief and outcome on children's hypothesis‐testing strategies

The impact of event outcome and prior belief on scientific reasoning was investigated within a real‐world oral health context. Participants (N= 144; ranging from 3 to 11 years) were given hypothesis‐testing tasks and asked to explain their answers. Participants were presented with information that was either consistent or inconsistent with their own beliefs. Each task consisted of scenarios in which the outcome was either good or bad oral health. When the information was belief consistent and the outcome was good, or when the information was belief inconsistent and the outcome was bad, children were more likely to choose scientifically appropriate tests of the stated hypothesis (i.e. manipulate only one variable). Evidence‐based explanations were associated with scientifically appropriate choices in the good‐outcome, belief‐inconsistent scenario and the belief‐consistent, bad‐outcome scenario. Participants' performance on these tasks is explained by considering the plausibility of causal variables. A control of variables strategy was used to test hypotheses in cases in which the evidence was consistent with participants' beliefs and knowledge of causal mechanisms. In contrast, when the evidence was inconsistent with participants' beliefs, children chose to manipulate behaviours likely to lead to a positive health outcome. These findings demonstrate that context and prior knowledge interact to play an important role in children's scientific reasoning.     

The social context of school playground games: Sex and ethnic differences,and changes over time after entry to junior school

This short‐term longitudinal study examined activities at recess and peer relations. We were interested in changes over the school year, and the sex and ethnic mix of groups. Data came from systematic observations of 129 pupils (61 boys and 68 girls) aged 7–8 years. Results showed that peer interaction dominated recess. Ball games increased over the year, and chasing games decreased. Aggression was most common during vigorous play and conversation, but not ball games. Cleavage in boys' and girls' play and activity was common but not inevitable. Mixed‐sex play was not supported by particular game types. Boys' game networks were larger than those of girls but there were no sex differences in active networks. There was little ethnic group segregation on playgrounds, and games became more integrated with time. The results indicate that playground activities can have a positive role in social relations between different ethnic groups.     

The benefits of being disadvantaged: performance‐related circumstances and consequences of intergroup comparisons

People are likely to evaluate their group's standing on an ability dimension by comparing the performance level of their own group with that of an outgroup. However, in addition to contrasting performance outcomes, they may also compare the specific circumstances under which both groups have performed. From a related attributes perspective, we argue that the outcome of such a comparison is a crucial determinant of the extent to which the relative success or failure of one's group can be ascribed to its superior or inferior ability respectively, and hence of the degree to which the relative position of one's group on the performance dimension in question can be perceived as legitimate and stable (i.e. as justified and unlikely to change). Accordingly, the present research shows that information concerning performance‐related circumstances has an impact on a wide range of reactions to the relative performance of one's group, varying from the experience of positive and negative affect, to motivational responses such as changes in collective efficacy beliefs for performance improvement, individual effort on behalf of the ingroup, and the tendency to hinder the future performance of an outgroup. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Psychology in the Service of the School by M. F. Cleugh

Abstract

Forgiveness intervention has been shown to be effective in dealing with problems caused by interpersonal hurt. Problems caused by courtship hurt could also be resolved by this approach. This paper describes the theoretical foundations and application of a group forgiveness treatment program which reflected some elements of collectivist Chinese culture positivity for individuals hurt in romantic relationships. Thirty-one female students from a Chinese university were randomly assigned to three groups (forgiveness group, general group, and control group). They completed a Scale of Courtship Forgiveness, the Beck Anxiety Inventory, the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Index of Well-Being &; Index of General Affect at entry (baseline), at the end of treatment, and at a four-week follow-up. Compared with the control group, clients both from forgiveness and general groups showed significant improvement in anxiety, depression, and well-being at the end of treatment, but only the forgiveness group showed significant improvement in courtship forgiveness. Further, the effectiveness of treatment for the forgiveness group lasted longer than for the general group. The findings suggest that the forgiveness treatment can be beneficial for college students hurt in romantic relationship.     

Weight reduction as a function of negative covert reinforcement (sensitization) versus positive covert reinforcement

The use of covert or imaginal procedures for weight reduction was evaluated using both positive covert reinforcement and negative (covert sensitization) in group treatment. The results indicate that both of these groups had significantly greater weight losses than a minimal treatment control group. Although the covert, positive reinforcement group did not significantly differ from the negative, its mean weight loss (in lbs) was greater at the end of the four week program. Both groups showed a further weight loss at a three month follow-up, although the changes in mean loss were not statistically significant. The control group, on the other hand, lost a significant amount of weight between the end of treatment and follow-up. However, at follow-up both positive and negative groups still had significantly greater weight losses than the control.     

Sizing fish and ponds: The joint effects of individual- and group-based feedback

The present paper explores the combined effects of individual- and group-directed feedback on perceived need for individual and collective change. Valence of feedback about individual and group performance (positive versus negative) was manipulated orthogonally. The results revealed that responses to various combinations of two-level feedback were moderated by group identification. With respect to the perceived need for collective change, high-identifiers (but not low-identifiers) were motivated by discrepant feedback: When group feedback was negative but individual feedback was positive, high identifiers perceived collective change to be more important than low-identifiers. With respect to the perceived need for individual change, low-identifiers (but not high-identifiers) were discouraged by the discrepant feedback: When group feedback was positive but individual feedback was negative, low-identifiers perceived individual change to be less important than high-identifiers. These data highlight the interplay between individual and collective feedback, and suggest that the meaning of feedback at each level (individual or group) is framed by the feedback received at the other level. Moreover, group identification seems to play a crucial role in reconciling differences between one's individual self and the performance of one's group.     

Gender recognition depends on type of movement and motor skill. Analyzing and perceiving biological motion in musical and nonmusical tasks

Gender recognition in point-light displays was investigated with regard to body morphology cues and motion cues of human motion performed with different levels of technical skill. Gestures of male and female orchestral conductors were recorded with a motion capture system while they conducted excerpts from a Mendelssohn string symphony to musicians. Point-light displays of conductors were presented to observers under the following conditions: visual-only, auditory-only, audiovisual, and two non-conducting conditions (walking and static images). Observers distinguished between male and female conductors in gait and static images, but not in visual-only and auditory-only conducting conditions. Across all conductors, gender recognition for audiovisual stimuli was better than chance, yet significantly less reliable than for gait. Separate analyses for two groups of conductors indicated an expertise effect in that novice conductors' gender was perceived above chance level for visual-only and audiovisual conducting, while skilled conducting gestures of experts did not afford gender-specific cues. In these conditions, participants may have ignored the body morphology cues that led to correct judgments for static images. Results point to a response bias such that conductors were more often judged to be male. Thus judgment accuracy depended both on the conductors' level of expertise as well as on the observers' concepts, suggesting that perceivable differences between men and women may diminish for highly trained movements of experienced individuals.     

Revisions and Regret: The Cost of Changing your Mind

Decision reversals often imply improved decisions. Yet, people show a strong resistance against changing their minds. These are well‐established findings, which suggest that changed decisions carry a subjective cost, perhaps by being more strongly regretted. Three studies were conducted to explore participants' regret when making reversible decisions and to test the hypothesis that changing one's mind will increase post‐outcome regret. The first two studies employed the Ultimatum game and the Trust game. The third study used a variant of the Monty Hall problem. All games were conducted by individual participants playing interactively against a computer. The outcomes were designed to capture a common characteristic of real‐life decisions: they varied from rather negative to fairly positive, and for every outcome, it was possible to imagine both more and less profitable outcomes. In all experiments, those who changed their minds reported much stronger post‐outcome regret than those who did not change, even if the final outcomes were equally good (Experiments 2 and 3) or better (Experiment 1).This finding was not because of individual differences with respect to gender, tendency to regret, or tendency to maximize. Previous studies have found that those who change from a correct to wrong option regret more than those who select a wrong option directly. This study indicates that this finding is a special case of a more general phenomenon: changing one's mind seems to come with a cost, even when one ends up with favorable outcomes. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.