Self-regulation versus habit: the influence of self-schema on fruit and vegetable consumption

The aim of this study is to examine the determinants of fruit and vegetable (F&V) consumption with the application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and the additional variables of self-schema, habit and self-regulation. While it has been shown that those with a healthy-eater self-schema are more likely to carry out their healthy dietary intentions, the underlying processes that influence this relationship have received limited empirical attention. Recent findings on dietary behaviour suggest that self-regulatory ability and habit strength may have dissimilar effects on the intention-behaviour relationship within schematics and non-schematics. Self-report questionnaires regarding F&V consumption cognitions and two tests of self-regulation were administered to 209 university students. One week later, participants completed questionnaires on their behaviour. The TPB significantly predicted intentions and prospective behaviour. Self-schema did not moderate the relationship between intention and behaviour. However, within healthy-eater schematics, those with high intention and high self-regulatory ability were more likely to consume F&V, while within non-schematics, those with low intention and high habit strength were more likely to consume F&V. The findings support the use of the TPB in predicting F&V consumption and the validity of the self-schema distinction. Implications for designing interventions are discussed.     

Behavioural automaticity moderates and mediates the relationship of trait self-control and physical activity behaviour

Objectives: Trait self-control has been shown to be associated with physical activity behaviour. However, in contrast with the theoretical assumption underlying the strength model of self-control, self-control seems to be more important for automatic compared with controlled behaviours. It is argued that self-control might facilitate the formation of adaptive habits (behavioural automaticity) and therefore enhance health behaviour through an indirect effect. The credibility of this hypothesis was empirically assessed in a proof-of-concept study.

Methods: In a prospective design study with two laboratory sessions, participants (N = 124) completed standardised questionnaires assessing trait self-control and behavioural automaticity as predictors (1st session) and actual physical activity behaviour (after one week) as the dependent variable (2nd session).

Results: The predictive power of self-control was stronger for participants with high behavioural automaticity compared with participants with low behavioural automaticity. Furthermore, automaticity mediated the relationship between self-control and behaviour.

Discussion: Behavioural automaticity appears to be a helpful construct for specifying the relationship between self-control and physical activity. Our results support the approach of effortless self-control and self-control success, an extension of the strength model of self-control which assumes that self-control is helpful in creating effective routines. In future studies, causal relationships should be examined using more robust and rigorous research designs.     

The role of implicit and explicit components of exerciser self-schema in the prediction of exercise behaviour

ObjectivesThis study investigated implicit and explicit components of exerciser self-schema and their role in the prediction of exercise behaviour. In addition, the effect of implicit and explicit exerciser self-schema on intention to exercise was examined. Moderation and mediation effects involving exerciser self-schema, in both its implicit and explicit forms, were investigated.MethodMembers of fitness centres and other regular exercisers (N = 98, n_males = 37, n_females = 65) completed a written questionnaire to measure explicit exerciser self-schema and exercise intentions. An exercise Implicit Association Test (IAT) was also administered to measure implicit exerciser self-schema. Actual exercise occurrence was measured one week and two weeks following the initial testing phase.ResultsCorrelations indicated that implicit and explicit components of exerciser self-schema were related but distinct constructs. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that high levels of both implicit and explicit exerciser self-schema improved absolute levels of exercise behaviour. Regression analyses examining the possibility that self-schema moderated the intention–behaviour relationship were not significant for implicit or explicit forms of self-schema. Forced entry regression analyses provided evidence for explicit exerciser self-schema being mediated by intention in its relationship with behaviour.ConclusionsIt is beneficial to consider both implicit and explicit exerciser self-schema when attempting to understand and predict exercise behaviour. Both implicit and explicit exercise self-schema have a direct effect on behaviour, although explicit self-schema also indirectly influences behaviour via intention to exercise.     

Sources of autonomy support,subjective vitality and physical activity behaviour associated with participation in a lunchtime walking intervention for physically inactive adults

ObjectivesBased on Basic Needs Theory (BNT: Deci & Ryan, 1985), this study examined longitudinal relationships between autonomy support from two sources, psychological need satisfaction, subjective vitality and self-reported physical activity during a walking intervention for physically inactive adults. We proposed that autonomy support provided via a walk leader and the overall programme would independently predict change in subjective vitality and physical activity from baseline to week 16 (post-intervention) and at four month follow-up. Further, we proposed that direct relationships among sources of autonomy support and outcomes would be mediated by autonomy, relatedness, and competence need satisfaction.DesignA longitudinal examination.MethodsParticipants (N = 69; n = 63 females, n = 6 males) from a 16-week walking programme completed a multi-section questionnaire measuring the aforementioned variables at three time points, including a four month post-intervention follow-up.ResultsBoth hypotheses were partly supported. Autonomy support from the walk leader positively predicted changes in subjective vitality from baseline to week 16 and in physical activity from baseline to follow-up. Autonomy support from the programme positively predicted changes in subjective vitality from baseline to week 16. Finally, autonomy gained from the walk leader mediated the relationship between autonomy support and subjective vitality, and between perceived autonomy support and physical activity.ConclusionsFindings indicate that autonomy support from both a walk leader and wider programme can predict psychological need satisfaction, subjective vitality and physical activity. Clinicians and researchers implementing future walking interventions may increase physical activity and subjective vitality by facilitating psychological need satisfaction through autonomy support from both sources.     

Using the EZ-diffusion model to score a Single-Category Implicit Association Test of physical activity

ObjectiveThe Single-Category Implicit Association Test (SC-IAT) has been used as a method for assessing automatic evaluations of physical activity, but measurement artifact or consciously-held attitudes could be confounding the outcome scores of these measures. The objective of these two studies was to address these measurement concerns by testing the validity of a novel SC-IAT scoring technique.DesignStudy 1 was a cross-sectional study, and study 2 was a prospective study.MethodIn study 1, undergraduate students (N = 104) completed SC-IATs for physical activity, flowers, and sedentary behavior. In study 2, undergraduate students (N = 91) completed a SC-IAT for physical activity, self-reported affective and instrumental attitudes toward physical activity, physical activity intentions, and wore an accelerometer for two weeks. The EZ-diffusion model was used to decompose the SC-IAT into three process component scores including the information processing efficiency score.ResultsIn study 1, a series of structural equation model comparisons revealed that the information processing score did not share variability across distinct SC-IATs, suggesting it does not represent systematic measurement artifact. In study 2, the information processing efficiency score was shown to be unrelated to self-reported affective and instrumental attitudes toward physical activity, and positively related to physical activity behavior, above and beyond the traditional D-score of the SC-IAT.ConclusionsThe information processing efficiency score is a valid measure of automatic evaluations of physical activity.     

Experimental test of a planning intervention for forming a ‘higher order’ health-habit

Abstract

Objective: Habit-formation interventions may help individuals initiate and maintain behaviour change. This paper proposes and empirically tests the idea that it is possible for individuals to form ‘higher-order habits’, or behaviours that can be executed in more than one way, and still be habitual.

Design: Participants (N?=?82) were healthy adults randomly assigned to an action-and-coping-planning intervention for forming a ‘higher-order habit’ of filling half of their dinner plates with fruits and vegetables or a control condition. Key measures were collected at baseline and 1, 2 and 3 weeks post-baseline. Participants submitted 3 pictures per week of their dinner plates via snapchat/email.

Main Outcome Measures: Intrinsic motivation, habit strength and behavioural frequency for filling half their dinner plates with fruits and vegetables.

Results: Intervention participants reported significantly greater habit strength at each follow-up time point. Controls did show some degree of habit formation, despite not fully forming a habit. Behavioural automaticity increased despite consuming a variety of fruits/vegetables; results did not depend on participants’ intrinsic motivation to consume fruits/vegetables.

Conclusion: It may be possible for individuals to form ‘higher-order’ habits, which may be particularly important in health contexts, in which many target behaviours are complex and can be seen as higher-order.     

Decomposing the within-person and between-person sources of variation in physical activity-cognition associations for low-active older adults

Abstract

Objectives: To examine within-person and between-person sources of variation in the relationship between physical activity and cognition in older adults participating in a walking program. To explore whether demographic, health and fitness variables, and their interactions with activity, are significant predictors of cognition.

Design: Brief longitudinal burst design.

Participants: 118 participants (91 females, mean age?=?72.81?+ 5.24 years).

Main Outcome Measures: Cognition, self-reported moderate-to-vigorous walking and self-reported moderate-to-vigorous physical activity were assessed at baseline and 6, 9, 12 and 16 weeks follow-up. Attendance at weekly walks was also recorded.

Results: Within-persons, changes in physical activity were related to select measures of executive functioning, with increased activity predictive of better cognition (three of four cognitive functions, p<.05). Between-persons, activity was also associated with cognition (two of four cognitive functions, p<.05). Younger age and higher education were related to better cognition. Interactions of demographic, health, and fitness variables with changes in within-person activity were generally non-significant.

Conclusion: The results highlight the importance of distinguishing within- from between-person effects in longitudinal analyses of the association between physical activity and cognition. This stringent within-person test of association underscores the potential value of simple physical activity interventions for improving cognitive function.     

Are action planning and physical activity mediators of the intention-habit relationship?

ObjectivesPhysical activity is associated with many health benefits that are important for older adults. These health benefits can only be obtained and preserved when physical activity is maintained over a long period of time. Habit formation has been proposed as a way to ensure long-term maintenance of physical activity. Intention, action planning, and physical activity are suggested to be determinants of physical activity habits. However, how they determine physical activity habits in older adults is largely unknown. This study examined whether the relationship between intention and habit is mediated by action planning and/or physical activity.DesignA four-wave prospective design was used.MethodsTwo independent studies were conducted in 469 (Study 1; M_age = 63.07, SD_age = 7.61) and 322 (Study 2; M_age = 64.31, SD_age = 9.39) older adults. Study 2 was conducted with the aim of replicating findings of Study 1. In both studies the older adults completed questionnaires on intention, physical activity, and habit at baseline, action planning at three months, physical activity at six months, and habit at twelve months.ResultsStructural equation modeling analyses showed significant intention-physical activity-habit paths, nonsignificant intention-action planning-habit paths, and nonsignificant intention-action planning-physical activity-habit paths in both studies.ConclusionsThe relationship between physical activity habit and intention was mediated by physical activity. Intention was neither associated with habit via action planning as a single mediator, nor via action planning and physical activity as sequential mediators. Possible conditions under which intention-action planning-habit paths and intention-action planning-physical activity-habit paths exist are discussed.     

Effect of pretesting on intentions and behaviour: A pedometer and walking intervention

This study addressed the influence of pedometers and a pretest on walking intentions and behaviour. Using a Solomon four-group design, 63 female university students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: pedometer and pretest (n = 16), pedometer and no pretest (n = 16), no pedometer and pretest (n = 15), no pedometer and no pretest (n = 16). The pretest conditions included questions on walking, intentions to walk 12,500 steps per day, and self-efficacy for walking 12,500 steps per day. In the pedometer conditions a Yamax Digi-Walker SW-650 pedometer was worn for one week. All participants completed posttest questions. While significant pretest x pedometer interactions would have indicated the presence of pretest sensitisation, no such interactions were observed for either intention or self-reported walking. Wearing pedometers reduced intentions for future walking and coping self-efficacy. However, after controlling for pretest self-reported walking, pedometer use resulted in more self-reported walking. We conclude that wearing a pedometer increased self-reported walking behaviour but that a pretest did not differentially influence walking intentions, behaviour, or self-efficacy.     

How are habits formed: Modelling habit formation in the real world

To investigate the process of habit formation in everyday life, 96 volunteers chose an eating, drinking or activity behaviour to carry out daily in the same context (for example ‘after breakfast’) for 12 weeks. They completed the self‐report habit index (SRHI) each day and recorded whether they carried out the behaviour. The majority (82) of participants provided sufficient data for analysis, and increases in automaticity (calculated with a sub‐set of SRHI items) were examined over the study period. Nonlinear regressions fitted an asymptotic curve to each individual's automaticity scores over the 84 days. The model fitted for 62 individuals, of whom 39 showed a good fit. Performing the behaviour more consistently was associated with better model fit. The time it took participants to reach 95% of their asymptote of automaticity ranged from 18 to 254 days; indicating considerable variation in how long it takes people to reach their limit of automaticity and highlighting that it can take a very long time. Missing one opportunity to perform the behaviour did not materially affect the habit formation process. With repetition of a behaviour in a consistent context, automaticity increases following an asymptotic curve which can be modelled at the individual level. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A randomised controlled trial of the effects of implementation intentions on women's walking behaviour

The combination of low physical activity rates and increased cardiovascular deaths indicate the overwhelming need for behaviour change interventions that can effectively promote physical activity among sedentary women. This 11-week randomised controlled trial examined the effects of an implementation intentions intervention on sedentary women's walking behaviour. Seventy-five women (M age = 48.17) were randomly assigned to either a control group where they were required to self-monitor their daily pedometer-determined step count or to an experimental group where they were asked to form specific walking plans (i.e. implementation intentions) every 6 weeks and to self-monitor their daily pedometer-determined step count. Measures of exercise intentions, perceived behavioural control, scheduling and barrier self-efficacy were administered at baseline, week 6 and week 11. Analyses indicated higher step counts over the first 6 weeks for women in the experimental condition (p < 0.02). Furthermore, higher self-efficacy to schedule (p < 0.01) and overcome walking barriers (p < 0.03), as well as higher perceptions of behavioural control (p < 0.02) were found at week 11 for women in the experimental versus control condition. However, none of the control beliefs were found to mediate the effects of the intervention on the women's walking behaviour. Furthermore, the intervention did not have any effect on the strength of the goal intention–behaviour relationship. The findings suggest implementation intentions are an effective strategy for initiating leisure-time walking within sedentary women.     

Habit as moderator of the intention–physical activity relationship in older adults: a longitudinal study

This longitudinal study examined whether habit strength moderates the intention–physical activity (PA) relationship in older adults, within the framework of the attitude–social influences–efficacy (ASE) model and the theory of planned behaviour (TPB). A total of 1836 older adults (M _age?=?62.95?years, SD _age?=?8.17) completed a questionnaire on social cognitive constructs and PA habit strength at baseline, and six?months later a measure of PA. Three PA habit groups (i.e. low, medium and high) were composed, based on tertiles of the mean index score. Multi-group structural equation modelling analyses showed that intention significantly determined PA behaviour only in participants with a low or medium habit strength towards PA. This result suggests that PA is not intentional at high levels of habit strength and demonstrates the usefulness of incorporating habit in the ASE and TPB models. Results also showed that about half of the participants with a strong PA habit did not meet the recommended PA level. As strong habits may prevent intentional behavioural change and may hinder the receptiveness and openness for informational PA change strategies, additional intervention strategies, such as awareness raising and the use of implementation intentions, are needed for strongly habitual, but insufficiently active older adults.     

A longitudinal investigation of older adults’ physical activity: Testing an integrated dual-process model

Objective: To assess the effects of conscious and non-conscious processes for prediction of older adults’ physical activity (PA), we tested a dual-process model that integrated motivational (behavioural intention) and volitional (action planning and coping planning) processes with non-conscious, automatic processes (habit).

Method: Participants (N = 215) comprised community-dwelling older adults (M = 73.8 years). A longitudinal design was adopted to investigate direct and indirect effects of intentions, habit strength (Time 1), and action planning and coping planning (Time 2) on PA behaviour (Time 3). Structural equation modelling was used to evaluate the model.

Results: The model provided a good fit to the data, accounting for 44% of the variance in PA behaviour at Time 3. PA was predicted by intentions, action planning, and habit strength, with action planning mediating the intention-behaviour relationship. An effect of sex was also found where males used fewer planning strategies and engaged in more PA than females.

Conclusions: By investigating an integration of conscious and non-conscious processes, this study provides a novel understanding of older adults’ PA. Interventions aiming to promote PA behaviour of older adults should target the combination of psychological processes.     

Predicting habit: The case of physical exercise

ObjectivesHabit has been an undervalued concept in the behavioral sciences during the past few decades. One reason may be that habit has been equated with behavioral frequency. This leaves out an important characteristic of habits, i.e., the fact that repeated behavior may acquire a degree of automaticity. The present study aimed to demonstrate that exercising habit can be reliably measured, can empirically be distinguished from past frequency of exercising, and can thus be adopted as a meaningful criterion.Design and methodsA longitudinal study was conducted with two measurements one month apart among 111 students. Intentions to exercise, perceived behavioral control of exercising, past exercising frequency, and exercising habit were assessed at both measurements through an internet-based questionnaire. Exercising habit was assessed by the Self-Report Habit Index [Verplanken & Orbell (2003). Reflections on past behaviour: A self-report index of habit strength. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33, 1313–1330]), which breaks down the habit concept in the subjective experience of repetition and automaticity.ResultsThe results showed that exercising habit can be reliably measured, is stable over time, and can be distinguished from mere exercising frequency.ConclusionsIn addition to frequency of behavior, measuring habit provides information about the way behavior is executed. An important element of exercising behavior is the decision to go exercise. It is argued that the habit concept is therefore particularly relevant for the initiation of and adherence to exercising. Implications of distinguishing behavioral frequency and habit for interventions are discussed.     

Habit as mediator of the relationship between prior and later physical activity: A longitudinal study in older adults

ObjectivesHabit has been proposed as an explanation of why prior behavior is a good predictor of later behavior. This study examined whether habit mediates the relationship between prior and later physical activity (PA), within the framework of the attitude-social influences-efficacy (ASE) model and the theory of planned behavior (TPB).DesignA longitudinal design was used.MethodsA total of 1976 older adults completed questionnaires on ASE/TPB constructs and PA at baseline, intention at three months, habit at six months, and PA at twelve months.ResultsPath analyses showed that habit significantly mediates the relationship between prior and later PA, after ASE/TPB variables were taken into account.ConclusionsHabit is a partial solution to the question why prior PA is a good predictor of later PA. It is recommended to incorporate habit into the ASE/TPB model.     

Closing the intention–behaviour gap for sunscreen use and sun protection behaviours

Objective

Two studies were conducted with the aim of closing the intention–behaviour gap for sunscreen use and sun protection behaviours by examining the influence of self-regulatory capacity on the prediction of sunscreen use (Study 1) and self-regulatory capacity and habit on sun protection behaviours (Study 2).

Design

Studies were conducted online. Participants completed questionnaires and cognitive measures and then reported behaviour one week later.

Main Outcome Measures

Questionnaires measuring intention and cognitive tasks measuring self-regulatory capacity were administered to 209 university students. One week later, participants reported behaviour. In Study 2, questionnaires measuring intentions, and habit and cognitive tasks measuring self-regulatory capacity were administered to 178 university students who reported behaviour one week later.

Results

Intention accounted for 7.1% of variance in sunscreen use, no measures of self-regulation accounted for variance in behaviour or moderated the intention–behaviour gap (Study 1). Intention, self-regulatory capacity and habit accounted for 56.1% of variance in sun protection behaviours (Study 2). Intention, self-regulatory ability and habit predicted behaviour, while habit moderated the intention–behaviour gap.

Conclusion

Interventions aimed at increasing sun protection behaviours should take into account level of intention, self-regulatory capacity and habit. Individuals may benefit from habit formation strategies and self-regulation training.     

Walking is popular among adults but is it pleasant? A framework for clarifying the link between walking and affect as illustrated in two studies

ObjectivesThe popularity of walking is assumed to be due to this activity being pleasant. However, evidence of affective beneficence remains scarce. Instead, activities, including walking, that may not exceed certain thresholds of intensity and duration are presumed to lack sufficient potency to improve affect. In anticipation of investigations designed to explore the role of affect in mediating the walking–adherence relationship, we present and test a methodological platform for clarifying the walking–affect link.DesignRandomized experimental-vs-control group design (Study I) and randomized AB-vs-BA group design (Study II).MethodsTwo studies are described to illustrate the utility of the proposed approach. Affect was conceptualized as a dimensional construct and assessed repeatedly during and after the walks.ResultsShort, self-paced walks increase self-reported energy among active middle-aged and older adults.ConclusionsThe proposed framework could be useful in investigations of the walking–affect–adherence causal chain.     

Unveilling the cerebral and sensory contributions to automatic postural control during dual-task standing

ObjectivesThe postural control dual-task literature has demonstrated greater postural stability during dual-task in comparison to single task (i.e., standing balance alone through the examination of multiple kinetic and kinematic measures. This improve stability is thought to reflect an automatic mode of postural control during dual-task. Recently, sample entropy (SampEn) and wavelet discrete transform have supported the claim of automaticity, as higher SampEn values and a shift toward increased contributions from automatic sensory systems have been demonstrated in dual-task settings. In order to understand the cortical component of postural control, functional near-infrared spectroscopy has been used to measure cortical activation during postural control conditions. However, the neural correlates of automatic postural behaviour have yet to be fully investigated. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to confirm the presence of automatic postural control through static and dynamic balance measures, and to investigate the prefrontal cortex activation when concurrently performing quiet standing and the auditory cognitive tasks of varied difficulty.MethodEighteen healthy young adults (21.4 ± 3.96 yo), 12 females and 6 males, with no balance deficits were recruited. Participants were instructed to either quietly stand on a force platform (SM), perform three cognitive tasks while seated (SC) or perform both aforementioned tasks concurrently (DT).ResultsResults supported automatic postural control with lower area and standard deviation of center-of-pressure in DT conditions compared to SM. As for SampEn and the wavelet analysis, DT conditions demonstrated greater values than SM, and a shift from vision to a cerebellar contribution. For the most difficult cognitive task, the DNS task, a trend toward significantly lower right hemisphere prefrontal cortex activation compared to left hemisphere activation in DT was found, potentially representing a decrease in cognitive control, and the presence of automaticity.ConclusionThese findings suggest that the simultaneous performance of a difficult cognitive task and posture yields automatic postural behaviour, and provides insight into the neural correlates of automaticity.