Who’s more angry? Comparing driver anger and aggression within work and personal driving contexts

Anger and driver aggression increase crash risk. However, how these manifest according to the purpose of the journey (work vs personal) and the unique relationships between sources of anger and aggressive expressions of that anger is under-researched. The current study examined the relationships between different types of anger and aggression, recent crashes and infringements between drivers who drive mainly for work with those who drive mainly for personal reasons.Participants (N = 630) completed an online questionnaire reporting their driving anger tendencies across situations of travel delays, danger and hostility from others, frequency of aggressive driving (using the vehicle, verbal or physical) and crash and infringements in the previous year. Drivers were classified as work or personal drivers based on the percentage of the time they drove for each reason. Relationships between anger sources and aggression types were examined using Structural Equation Modelling, comparing models between the two groups. The relationships between aggression and safety outcomes were explored using Mann-Whitney U tests.The relationships between anger and aggression were similar across work and personal drivers. However, some group differences in the situations that contributed to anger and aggression were identified. Aggression was more frequent for drivers who drove mainly for work and had received a traffic violation, compared to those who had not received a traffic violation.These findings can inform the development of targeted interventions to manage the triggers of anger and aggression. Interventions are likely to impact work and personal drivers; thus, could target employers and road transport authorities.     

Metacognition,rumination and road rage: An examination of driver anger progression and expression in Australia

Road rage is a serious issue impacting road safety on Australian roads. This study investigated the psychological antecedents involved in aggressive driver behaviours. Specifically, the study investigated the relationships between metacognitive beliefs, anger rumination, trait driver anger, and driver aggression; and examined the extent of aggressive behaviours in a sample of Australian drivers (N = 246). An inspection of cross-tabulations indicated that nearly all drivers engaged in verbal driver aggression (94%), approximately half of the drivers engaged in vehicle aggression (53%), and approximately a quarter of the drivers engaged in physical aggression (27%). Driver aggression was more commonly reported from males, open licensed, and middle-aged drivers. Structural path analysis indicated that there was a hierarchical series of relationships present, in that metacognitive beliefs influenced cognitive constructs such as anger rumination and constructive expression. Additionally, such factors were shown to more prominently influence trait driver anger, and the degree to which it was expressed. Bivariate correlations also demonstrated that the relationships carried forward to more specific dimensions of anger rumination and driver aggression styles. The findings of this study may assist to identify the origins of psychological mechanisms involved with anger progression and expression and inform potential interventions for aggressive driving behaviours.     

The mediation effect of mentalization in the relationship between attachment and aggression on the road

Studies regarding aggression on the road are getting more frequent, due to the close relationship of these variables with risky behaviour and crash-related events. Whereas most of research has focused on both contextual and personality (proximal) variables, the current research aimed to explore the relationship between attachment styles (distal variables) and aggressive behaviour on the road, hypothesizing the mediation effect of mentalization. Then, a sample of 469 drivers (M_age = 35.60, SD_age = 12.38; 66.1% female) taken from the general Spanish population completed a set of measures about their attachment styles (secure, anxious, avoidant, and disorganized), mentalization (alexithymia, mindful attention, empathy, and emotion recognition), and aggressive behaviour on the road (verbal, physical, vehicle-use related, displaced, and adaptive aggression). The results showed that driving aggression variables were significantly associated with self-sufficiency attachment style, as well as with empathy, alexithymia, and mindful attention. A further SEM analysis suggested that mentalization did not mediate in the relationship between self-sufficiency and driving aggression, but significant indirect effects were obtained in the case of the association between preoccupation attachment style and each one of the ways of aggression. Clinical implications of the results are discussed, in terms of the possible effectiveness of mentalization-based therapies to reduce aggression on the road, especially those which refer to alexithymia and mindful attention.     

Preliminary validation of a Chinese version of the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2

The increased globalization of psychology and related fields necessitates the availability of psychometric instruments in a number of languages, countries and cultures. Unfortunately, research on anger and aggression in Chinese populations has suffered from a lack of valid and reliable measurement instruments. Therefore, the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2 (STAXI-2) was translated into Chinese (Chinese STAXI-2). Two samples of Hong Kong Chinese ( N  = 489 and N  = 775) completed the Chinese STAXI-2. Participants in the second sample also completed measures of anger rumination and aggression. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of responses from the first sample resulted in the loss of nine items from the 57 original items due to misspecification. A second CFA, using responses from the second sample, supported the construct validity of the modified scale. Moderate correlations were observed with measures of aggression and anger rumination, and significant differences were found between males and females on three anger expression subscales (Anger Expression-In, Anger Control-Out, and Anger Control-In). The preliminary evidence suggests that the abbreviated inventory may be a useful measure of state and trait anger, and anger expression in some Chinese populations.     

Psychometric adaptation of the driving anger expression inventory in a Chinese sample

The purpose of this study was to assess the psychometric properties and the factorial structure of the Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX) in a Chinese sample. We also explored the relationships among driving anger expression, general anger expression, and driving outcomes. Three hundred and fifty-eight drivers completed the Chinese version of the DAX, the Anger Expression Scale (AX), the Dula Dangerous Driving Index (DDDI) and a questionnaire about several types of traffic violations. A confirmatory factor analysis of the Chinese DAX yielded a four-factor solution with 20 items. This solution showed the best goodness of fit of the data and acceptable reliability. The validity of the revised DAX was also verified. The aggressive expression forms were positively correlated with dangerous driving behaviors. Using the vehicle to express anger was associated with fines. The aggressive forms were also positively correlated with general anger expression-out and negatively correlated with general anger control. The adaptive expression of anger was positively correlated with anger control but negatively correlated with dangerous driving behaviors, penalty points and fines. Furthermore, young drivers (<30 years old) reported more personal and physical aggressive expressions of anger than other drivers. Gender differences were only found in some age groups. Thus, the revised DAX was confirmed to be a reliable and valuable instrument to measure forms of driving anger expression in traffic environments in China.     

Approaching to a structural model of impulsivity and driving anger as predictors of risk behaviors in young drivers

Due to the high rates of traffic accidents in young drivers, psychology studies identify road anger as an important factor associated to risk driving behaviors, in order to know which psychological variables can predict road anger, the literature suggest impulsivity as an individual condition related to anger. The objective of this research is to obtain an explanatory model of risk driving as a result of the relationship of impulsivity, road anger expression and the control of impulsivity and anger. A sample of 407 subjects, both sexes drivers were surveyed, obtaining a structural equation model with acceptable adjustment values. The model showed that control of impulsivity and anger predict impulsivity (β = −0.25) and physical expression of anger (β = −0.50), Impulsivity also showed predictive capacity towards the physical expression of anger (β = 0.29), and the physical expression of anger towards risk driving behaviors (β = 0.89). Due to the findings it is suggested the implementation of social programs that promote the development of anger regulatory skills and impulse control, as part of the preventive actions of road accidents.     

The mediation effect of emotion dysregulation in the relationship between anger and aggression on the road in a sample of Spanish drivers

Aggressive behaviour on the road is one of the most studied topics in human factors, given it has been related to both risky behaviour and traffic crashes. While previous research has proposed trait driving anger as one of the better predictors, mediation variables which could explain this relationship have not deserved attention. The current research aimed to explore the mediation effect of emotion regulation in this relationship. The sample consisted of 472 Spanish drivers, who completed a set of self-reports regarding trait driving anger, frequency of aggressive behaviours at the wheel, and difficulties in emotion regulation. The results showed significant relationship among the variables in almost all the cases. Furthermore, a SEM analysis showed that difficulties in emotion regulation significantly mediated the relationship between trait driving anger and each way of the aggressive behaviours (verbal, physical, using own vehicle, and displaced). These results have important implications in the design of strategies focused on the improvement of emotion regulation to reduce aggressive behaviours in drivers. Finally, the limitations of the study are commented.     

Anger-congruent behaviour transfers across driving situations

Anger and aggression on the road may sometimes appear unprovoked and unrelated to current driving circumstances. It is unclear whether such anger and aggression arises because of events prior to those circumstances in which anger is experienced and aggression is exhibited. In this study, time pressure and enforced following of a slowly moving vehicle were used to increase drivers’ anger in order to assess whether affect and behaviour during a subsequent, non-provocative, drive would change accordingly. Ninety-six drivers drove twice in a simulated urban environment. During the first drive, oncoming traffic and a slowly moving lead vehicle required that half of the drivers travelled far slower than they would choose. During the second drive, drivers again followed slower vehicles and were required to respond to traffic events not encountered in the manipulation drive. Mood (Profile of Mood States) was assessed before and after each drive, and anger evaluations, arousal (heart rate) and behaviour (speed, lane position and collisions) were measured during drives. Anger increased and both mood and driving behaviour deteriorated in drivers exposed to slower lead vehicles, compared with control group drivers. These behavioural differences of speed and lane positioning carried over into the subsequent drive even to driving situations unlike those where provocation had previously occurred. Drivers who had previously been impeded later approached hazards with less caution, and attempted more dangerous overtaking manoeuvres. It is concluded that sometimes dangerous driving may result from anger provoked by circumstances other than those in which the behaviour is exhibited.     

Driving demands,stress reactivity and driving behavior: An interactional approach

The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of driving demands, neuroticism, and their interaction when predicting driving behavior. More precisely, we strived to examine how driving behaviors (i.e., speeding, winding, tailgating and jerky driving) unfold across low and high driving demands and whether they are contingent on a personality factor that has previously been linked to stress reactivity. In a driving simulator, 50 participants with a valid driver’s license (56.6% female, age: M = 30.13, SD = 10.16) were exposed to driving scenarios of different levels of information processing and vehicle handling demands. Additionally, they filled-out a self-report questionnaire that measured their neuroticism. We found that driving behavior became safer in scenarios that were highly demanding in terms of information processing, while this pattern did not emerge with vehicle handling demands. Moreover, tentative support was found for the notion that individuals high in neuroticism are less able to adapt their behavior to higher information processing demands. The present study offers new insights on driving demands in a simulated driving context and points to the potential importance of exploring interactions between personality and situational factors when understanding driving behavior. Additionally, the results of the present study may be used to adapt driver’s education programs.     

Investigating sex,masculinity and femininity in relation to impulsive driving and driving anger expression

Human factors constitute a class of prominent road safety related factors. In the present study, human factors of driving were studied by investigating sex differences and gender roles in relation to impulsive driving and driving anger expression. A total of 425 drivers between the ages of 18 and 56 (M = 25.46, SD = 7.58) participated to the study and completed a series of questionnaires including a demographic information form, the Bem Sex Roles Inventory, the Impulsive Driver Behaviour Scale and the Driving Anger Expression Inventory. According to the ANCOVA results, male drivers showed higher functional impulsivity, lack of premeditation and use of the vehicle to express anger than female drivers. Additionally, hierarchical regression analyses showed that masculinity was positively associated with functional impulsivity, urgency and the dimensions of aggressive anger expression. However, femininity was positively associated with functional impulsivity and adaptive/constructive anger expression, but negatively associated with the dimensions of dysfunctional impulsivity and aggressive anger expression. Overall, the results showed the significant solo effects of masculinity and femininity on impulsive driver behaviours and driving anger expression, over and above the effects of sex, and the interaction between sex and gender roles. In the present study, previously reported findings indicating the relationships between sex and gender roles and driving anger expression were supported and extended by providing the literature with the contribution of answering the question how sex and gender roles are related to impulsive driver behaviours. The findings of the two related concepts of impulsive driving and driving anger expression were discussed in light of the current literature. Contributions, implications and future research directions concerning road safety practices were presented.     

Individual differences in anger and displaced aggression: The role of metacognitive beliefs and anger rumination

Metacognitive model is a theoretical approach aimed to explain emotion dysregulation and others emotion-related issues, such anger, and aggressive behavior. From this model, people having higher maladaptive metacognitive beliefs (e.g., “I can't control my thoughts”) are more likely to activate and maintain anger rumination and, in turn, to experience higher levels of anger and to act aggressively. Preliminary evidence shows the role of metacognitive beliefs on anger rumination and anger levels, whereas no studies have examined its association with aggressive behavior. This study first examined the associations between metacognitive beliefs, anger rumination, anger levels, and the propensity to engage in displaced aggression, and second, the mediation role of anger rumination in the relations among metacognitive beliefs and anger and displaced aggression. Participants were 947 students and non-students from general population recruited in two different countries (Australia and Spain). Correlational analyses revealed a similar pattern of results in the Australian and Spanish sample, with participants having dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs also showing higher anger rumination, higher levels of anger and a higher tendency to act aggressively. Structural equation analyses revealed the associations of metacognitive beliefs with anger levels and displaced aggression was fully mediated by anger rumination in both samples. These results suggest that metacognitive beliefs should be considered in comprehensive models and in the therapy of anger problems and aggression.     

The influence of just-world beliefs on driving anger and aggressive driving intentions

Decades of research demonstrate that the extent to which one believes the world is just can have important interpersonal consequences. Unfortunately, most of the commonly studied consequences are negative in nature. Guided by previous research demonstrating the buffering effect of just‐world beliefs and anger, the present research explores how belief in a just world (BJW) may mitigate anger in the domain of driving anger and examines the limiting conditions of this effect. Study 1 demonstrated the expected negative relation between common measures of BJW and anger expression in a driving context. Study 2 found that the buffering effects of just‐world beliefs and driver aggression were greater when BJW was violated (vs. not). Study 3 replicated the effects on aggression and anger and established a mediational role of anger on the buffering effects of just‐world beliefs on thoughts and driver aggression. Aggr. Behav. 38:389‐402, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Gender differences in aggression: The role of displaying facial emotional cues in a competitive situation

Prior studies have shown that facial emotion displays communicate emotional states and interpersonal intentions. This study addressed gender differences in aggression based on the facial emotional cues expressed from a fictional opponent. A modified version of the competitive reaction time task (CRTT) was used to measure aggression. Participants (N = 251), between 18 and 35 years of age, were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions of the fictional opponents’ facial emotional cue displayed during the CRTT: anger, sadness, neutral, or the absence of facial expression. After each trial, participants were asked to report their own feelings and to choose a level of noise to administer to their opponent. Finally, motives for aggression were assessed. Results showed that women were less aggressive than men when receiving emotional cues of sadness and anger from the sender. In contrast, no gender differences occurred when a neutral expression was displayed or in the absence of any expression. In addition, men displayed similar levels of aggression across the four conditions, whereas women were more aggressive in both neutral and no feedback conditions than in the sad and anger conditions. Instrumental motives contributed to explaining the overall gender differences in aggression. These results suggest important moderator and mediator factors of gender differences in aggressive behavior.     

Trait aggression is primarily a facet of antagonism: Evidence from dominance,latent correlational,and item-level analyses

Trait aggression has been studied for decades and yet remains adrift from broader frameworks of personality such as the Five Factor Model. Across two datasets from undergraduate participants (Study 1: N = 359; Study 2; N = 620), we observed strong manifest and latent correlations between trait aggression and lower agreeableness (i.e., greater antagonism). Trait aggression was also linked to greater neuroticism and lower conscientiousness, but their effect sizes fell beneath our preregistered threshold. Subsequent item-level analyses were unable to articulate trait aggression and agreeableness items into separate factors using the IPIP-NEO, but not the Big Five Inventory. Our findings suggest that trait aggression is accurately characterized as primarily a facet of antagonism, while also reflecting other personality dimensions.     

Distal predictors of trait driving anger. The influence of attachment styles through the mediation effect of general anger and self-esteem

Trait driving anger has been widely studied in recent years. However, whereas its proximal (personality) correlates have been well established, possible distal variables have not yet been explored. The aim of the current research study was to analyse the association of attachment styles with trait driving anger, by testing the hypothesis that both trait general anger and self-esteem would mediate this relationship. The results revealed positive and significant relationships between preoccupation, self-sufficiency, value of parental authority and parental interference, and trait driving anger. Furthermore, a SEM-based multiple mediation analysis showed that both trait general anger and self-esteem significantly mediated the relationship between preoccupation and trait driving anger, and self-sufficiency and trait driving anger, with a medium effect size (f² = 0.16). Finally, some aspects of the research in this new area are addressed, and both the clinical implications of these results and the limitations of the study are discussed.     

A matter of style? Driver attributional ‘style’ in accounting for the driving of others as protective or as predisposing drivers towards retaliatory aggressive driving

Driver cognitions about aggressive driving of others are potentially important to the development of evidence-based interventions. Previous research has suggested that perceptions that other drivers are intentionally aggressive may influence recipient driver anger and subsequent aggressive responses. Accordingly, recent research on aggressive driving has attempted to distinguish between intentional and unintentional motives in relation to problem driving behaviours. This study assessed driver cognitive responses to common potentially provocative hypothetical driving scenarios to explore the role of attributions in driver aggression. A convenience sample of 315 general drivers 16–64 yrs (M = 34) completed a survey measuring trait aggression (Aggression Questionnaire AQ), driving anger (Driving Anger Scale, DAS), and a proxy measure of aggressive driving behaviour (Australian Propensity for Angry Driving AusPADS). Purpose designed items asked for drivers’ ‘most likely’ thought in response to AusPADS scenarios. Response options were equivalent to causal attributions about the other driver. Patterns in endorsements of attribution responses to the scenarios suggested that drivers tended to adopt a particular perception of the driving of others regardless of the depicted circumstances: a driving attributional style. No gender or age differences were found for attributional style. Significant differences were detected between attributional styles for driving anger and endorsement of aggressive responses to driving situations. Drivers who attributed the on-road event to the other being an incompetent or dangerous driver had significantly higher driving anger scores and endorsed significantly more aggressive driving responses than those drivers who attributed other driver’s behaviour to mistakes. In contrast, drivers who gave others the ‘benefit of the doubt’ endorsed significantly less aggressive driving responses than either of these other two groups, suggesting that this style is protective.     

Associations between self-reported mindfulness,driving anger and aggressive driving

Anger and aggression on the roads is associated with how drivers evaluate the driving situation and the behaviour of other drivers. Consequently, both can be exacerbated when these evaluations are made superficially and/or when drivers have pre-existing negative schemas regarding certain types of road situations or users. Mindfulness is likely to have negative associations with anger and aggression because it promotes opposing appraisals. That is, it encourages emotion-regulation and involves acceptance of, but not reaction to, the current situation. To examine these associations, a total of 309 drivers responded to an online questionnaire assessing mindfulness, driving anger and aggressive driving. The results showed that mindfulness shared negative relationships with driving anger and self-reported aggressive driving. However, when these relationships were examined simultaneously using Structural Equation Modelling, mindfulness was found to relate only to anger and this, in turn, predicted aggressive driving. Further analysis showed that driving anger mediates the relationship between mindfulness and aggressive driving. These results suggest that mindfulness training may provide a promising intervention for drivers prone to driving anger and subsequent aggression.     

Cross-cultural perspective of driving style in young adults: Psychometric evaluation through the analysis of the Multidimensional Driving Style Inventory

Self-evaluating methods are frequently used to identify driving styles. Among others, one of the most commonly used questionnaires is the Multidimensional Driving Style Inventory (MDSI), developed for the Israeli population. Because of the extensive use of the questionnaire, the present paper aims to validate an Italian version and to confirm the 8-factor structure of the original one, i.e, dissociative, anxious, risky, angry, high-velocity, distress-reduction, patient, and careful driving style. The Italian version of the MDSI was filled out by 561 Italian drivers, who had a driving license for at least 1 year. A confirmatory factorial analysis (CFA) was conducted on the 44-item of the translated questionnaire showing not so good values of the goodness of fit tests (SRMR = 0.085; RMSEA = 0.063). The total-item correlation of each scale indicated that 4 items had a low index of total-item correlation. A second CFA was conducted on the remaining 40 items: goodness fit parameters improved (SRMR = 0.0685, RMSEA = 0.0584). Previous validations of the original version of MDSI for different populations (Argentine, Romanian, Chinese, Malaysian, Butch and Belgian) showed several critical issues in confirming the original structure. In the Italian version of MDSI validated in the present paper, the original 8-factor structure was confirmed by removing the 4 items which did not properly contribute to the factors. The results not only confirmed the usefulness of the MDSI in assessing driving style but they also indicated that the concept of driving style is considered in the same way in Italy and Israel, even though traffic rules are different. The latter consideration raises interesting questions for future research concerning cross-cultural comparisons of driving behavior in different countries.     

Qualités psychométriques d’une version francophone du « Displaced Aggression Questionnaire »

IntroductionThe Displaced Aggression Questionnaire is currently the only self-report instrument to measure individual tendency to displace aggression. It is composed of three factors, which assess an affective dimension (angry rumination), a cognitive dimension (revenge planning) and a behavioral dimension (displaced aggression).ObjectiveTo adapt a French translated version of the Displaced Aggression Questionnaire and test the psychometrics.MethodIn this study, we recruited 191 adults in the community. The questionnaire has been adapted and validated with respects to guidelines for the process of transcultural adaptation and validation of self-report measures. A principal component analysis has been used to assess the structure of the French version of the questionnaire.ResultsAfter taking into account one item that has not loaded onto any of the three expected factors, the principal component analysis confirmed the hypothesized three-factor structure for the French version of the questionnaire according to the original structure of the scale. It has been named Questionnaire d’Agression Déplacée in French. Results showed good psychometric qualities for the internal consistency, the discriminant and concomitant validity and the reliability.ConclusionBased on these positive results, this version can already be used by French speaking researchers.     

Reliability and validity of the PL-C Quest,a scale designed to assess children’s self-reported physical literacy

BackgroundThe Physical Literacy in Children Questionnaire (PL-C Quest) was developed to assess children’s perceived physical literacy. Pictorial items assess 30 elements within four domains (Physical - 12 items, Psychological - 7 items, Social - 4 items and Cognitive - 7 items). The aim of this study was to assess the reliability and construct validity of the PL-C Quest in Australian children aged 7–12 years.MethodsIn 2020, Australian parents and children were recruited via social media (Sample 1: n = 80) and panel sampling (Sample 2: n = 589). Parents consented online, completed demographic details and children completed the PL-C Quest online. Test-retest reliability was assessed in a sub-group of Sample 1 (n = 59). Internal consistency and construct validity [Structural Equation Modelling (SEM)] were assessed using combined samples. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) SEM was tested based on the hypothesized structure of four subdomains and a higher order factor of physical literacy.ResultsMost parents were born in Australia (78%) and had a university education [University (61%), Trade (16%), High school (15%) and less than High school (8%)]. Children (59% boys; 40% girls; 1% other) had a mean age of 10.1 years (SD = 1.7). Physical literacy did not differ by age, but children of tertiary educated parents had higher physical literacy levels. Test-retest values (Mean = 15.8 days apart) were adequate to good [overall: ICC = 0.83, physical: ICC = 0.80, psychological: ICC = 0.76, social: ICC = 0.66, cognitive: ICC = 0.75]. Internal consistency values were as follows: overall: α = 0.92; physical: α = 0.82; psychological: α = 0.75; social: α = 0.72; cognitive: α = 0.77. All items except two loaded on sub-domains above 0.45. The final model had an adequate fit (SRMR = 0.043, CFI = 0.92, TLI = 0.90, RMSEA = 0.045).ConclusionsResults indicate the PL-C Quest has acceptable test-retest reliability and construct validity. Further research could seek to explore validity in children aged 5 and 6 years of age and in other cultural contexts.