The value of self-report measures as indicators of driving behaviors among young drivers

Although much of the knowledge in transportation psychology has been gained by means of self-report measures, there is still a dispute regarding the usefulness and validity of such instruments. This series of two studies employed multivariate statistical models to examine associations between self-report and objective measures in two samples of young drivers. Study 1 (n = 151) compared scores on the Multidimensional Driving Style Inventory (MDSI), a self-report questionnaire tapping four broad driving styles, with the naturalistic driving recorded by an in-vehicle data recorder (IVDR). Study 2 (n = 80) compared responses to the Reckless Driving Habits Scale, assessing the frequency with which drivers commit a set of risky behaviors, with driving measures collected by a simulator. This study also examined the personality trait of sensation seeking, as well as gender and driving experience. In Study 1, the analysis revealed positive associations between high scores on the risky and hostile driving styles measured by the MDSI and risky behaviors measured by the IVDR, as well as inverse correlations between the latter and high MDSI scores on the anxious and careful driving styles. Similarly, in Study 2 associations were found between the self-reported frequency of reckless driving habits and several risky behaviors measured by the driving simulator. In addition, risky behaviors correlated with the sociodemographic variables and sensation seeking. The two studies therefore show that self-report measures are reliable tools for assessing driving behaviors for purposes of research, evaluation, and intervention.     

The influence of the frequency of cannabis use and of the five impulsivity traits on risky driving behaviors among young drivers

Concerns about road safety are at the forefront of discussions given the recent legalization of cannabis in many areas. Some studies have demonstrated that the frequency of cannabis use is a significant predictor of risky driving among young drivers. However, it is difficult to isolate the specific contribution of substance use from the influence of certain individual personality traits such impulsivity. Indeed, impulsivity traits (i.e., positive urgency, negative urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, sensation seeking) are also correlated with risky driving. The present study examined the effect of the frequency of cannabis use on risky driving while taking into account the effect of five impulsivity traits. A community sample of 209 young drivers (aged 17–25 years) completed self-report questionnaires about their road behaviors, their cannabis use, and their impulsivity traits. The results showed that the frequency of cannabis use was significantly associated with risky driving beyond the five impulsivity traits measured. Positive urgency was the only impulsivity trait that remained significantly associated with risky driving once all covariates were entered into the model. Moreover, the frequency of cannabis use acted as a mediator in the relationship between sensation seeking and risky driving.     

The prevalence of cell phone use while driving in a Canadian province

The use of a cell phone while driving has been recognized as a form of distracted driving across the world. Many countries have banned the use of handheld mobile devices while operating motor vehicles. In Canada, all the provinces and territories now ban the use of handheld cell phones while driving. Utilizing the 2011 annual Alberta Survey, this study examined the current prevalence of cell phone use while driving in the province of Alberta. Moreover, this paper investigated the impact of the perception of risk on actual behaviors, and if demographic factors played a role. Our results indicated that despite being cognizant of the risks involved, many Albertans (52%) still use cell phones (45% of cell phone users utilized hands-free devices) while driving. Logistic regression analysis indicated that gender, age, employment status, home ownership, household income, immigrant status, and risk perceptions were significant predictors of cell phone use while driving in the province. These findings imply that the use of cell phones while operating a vehicle remains quite high despite legislative efforts to limit such behavior.     

Factors influencing intentions to text while driving among Polish drivers

Previous research has found that using a mobile phone while driving has a detrimental effect on driver safety and performance. The present study used the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) to examine a number of factors thought to be related to intentions to send or read text messages while driving. A total of 298 Polish drivers completed a survey that included measures of the TPB components related to intentions to send or read text messages in four different scenarios. The scenarios differed according to whether or not the drivers were waiting at traffic lights or travelling at 100 km/h and according to whether or not they were under time pressure. The research found that Attitudes and Perceived Behavioural Control were positive predictors of general intentions to use a mobile phone while driving. Similarly, Attitudes consistently predicted intentions to send and read text messages across the four scenarios. The findings of this study could be utilised for developing an educational campaign aimed at promoting more positive attitudes toward road safety and at reducing intentions to use mobile phones while driving.     

Cognitive function and young drivers: The relationship between driving,attitudes, personality and cognition

Young drivers (aged 17–25 years) are the highest risk age group for driving crashes and are over-represented in car crash statistics in Australia. A relationship between cognitive functioning and driving in older drivers (60 years and older) has been consistently supported in previous literature, however, this relationship has been neglected in research regarding younger drivers. The role of cognitive functioning in young people’s driving was investigated both independently and within a current model of younger peoples driving performance. With young drivers as participants, driving behaviour, attitudes, personality and cognitive functioning were tested and driving performance was operationalised through two measures on a driving simulator, speeding and lane deviations. Cognitive functioning was found to contribute to driving behaviour, along with driving attitudes and personality traits, in accounting for young people’s driving performance. The young drivers who performed better on cognitive functioning tasks engaged in less speeding behaviour and less lane deviation on the driving simulator than those who performed worse on these tasks. This result was found independent of the role of driving behaviour, driving attitudes and personality traits, accounting for unique variance in driving ability.     

Keep on cruising: Changes in lifestyle and driving style among male drivers between the age of 18 and 23

Despite recent improvements in general road safety levels, young male drivers in most western countries continue to be overrepresented in road traffic accidents. Lifestyle related motivational factors are a key element in the young male driver problem. Based on 379 posted questionnaires completed by the same male drivers at the age of 18 and again at the age of 23, this study examined changes in the relationship between lifestyle and driving style over a 5 year period. A number of changes in car use, driving style and engagement in different leisure time activities were found. Cruising was related to an extrovert social life as well as problem behaviours such as drink driving. At the age of 18 cruising was a part of the normal social life of the majority of the participants. However, while most drivers reduced their level of cruising as well as related problem behaviour over time, a smaller group still showed a similar life style at the age of 23. The study confirmed the importance of lifestyle related motivational factors for driving behaviour among young drivers.     

An exploration of the effectiveness of in-person and online versions of the induced hypocrisy paradigm to reduce smartphone use among young drivers

Worldwide, smartphone use is a major contributing factor to road crash among young drivers. While young drivers may be aware of their heightened crash risk and the legal penalties associated with this behaviour, young drivers continue to engage with their smartphones. The development of novel interventions targeting this behaviour is therefore crucial. The current 2 × 2 between groups experimental study (N = 153, 107F, 43 M, 1 other) investigated the concept of cognitive dissonance in relation to smartphone use among young drivers aged 17–25 years (M_age = 20.66 SD = 2.26). Specifically, it applied the induced hypocrisy paradigm to this context. The induced hypocrisy paradigm elicits cognitive dissonance by asking participants to both advocate for the desired behaviour and identify their engagement in the undesired behaviour. Participants are then motivated to change their behaviour to reduce the feelings of dissonance. The current study investigated the efficacy of both the traditional in-person methodology with a new online methodology. Analyses (e.g., ANCOVA) found that the online conditions were more effective than the in-person groups at eliciting dissonance and that the intervention conditions were more effective in reducing both intention and change in behaviour (from pre- to post-intervention) than the control groups. The intervention groups were also more likely to take/request a flyer about driver distraction. While more research is needed to corroborate these findings, these initial results suggest that cognitive dissonance occurs when young drivers use their smartphones and that the induced hypocrisy paradigm may be an effective intervention. In particular, this study’s findings suggest that an online version of the induced hypocrisy paradigm has merit and may form part of future cost-effective, mass interventions.     

Distraction while driving: The case of older drivers

As the impairment of older drivers is especially found in perception and attention, one could assume that they are especially prone to distraction effects of secondary tasks performed while driving. The aim of the study was to examine the effect of age on driving performance as well as the compensation strategies of older drivers under distraction. 10 middle-aged and 10 older drivers drove in a simulator with and without a secondary task. To assess driving performance the Lane Change Task (Mattes, 2003) was used. This method aims at estimating driver demand while a secondary task is being performed, by measuring performance degradation on a primary driving-like task in a standardized manner. The secondary task – a self-developed computer-based version of “d2 Test of Attention” was presented both with and without time pressure. The results show that older participants’ overall driving performance (mean deviation from an ideal path) was worse in all conditions as compared to the younger ones. With regard to lane change reaction time both age groups were influenced by distraction in a comparable manner. However, when the lane keeping performance (standard deviation of the lateral position) was examined, the older participants were more affected than the younger ones. This pattern could be explained by compensation strategies of the older drivers. They focused on the most relevant part of the driving task, the lane change manoeuvres and were able to maintain their performance level in a similar way as did younger drivers. The driving performance of the older participants was not additionally impaired when the secondary task imposed time pressure. Overall, subjective rating of driving performance, perceived workload and perceived distraction was found to be similar for both age groups. The observed trends and patterns associated with distraction while driving should contribute to the further research or practical work regarding in-vehicle technologies and older drivers.     

The ability of young,middle-aged and older drivers to inhibit visual and auditory distraction in a driving simulator task

Driver distraction is one major cause of road traffic accidents. In order to avoid distraction-related accidents it is important to inhibit irrelevant stimuli and unnecessary responses to distractors and to focus on the driving task, especially when unpredictable critical events occur. Since inhibition is a cognitive function that develops until young adulthood and decreases with increasing age, young and older drivers should be more susceptible to distraction than middle-aged drivers. Using a driving simulation, the present study investigated effects of acoustic and visual distracting stimuli on responses to critical events (flashing up brake lights of a car ahead) in young, middle-aged, and older drivers. The task difficulty was varied in three conditions, in which distractors could either be ignored (perception-only), or required a simple response (detection) or a complex Go-/NoGo-response (discrimination). Response times and error rates to the critical event increased when a simultaneous reaction to the distractor was required. This distraction effect was most pronounced in the discrimination condition, in which the participants had to respond to some of the distracting stimuli and to inhibit responses to some other stimuli. Visual distractors had a stronger impact than acoustic ones. While middle-aged drivers managed distractor inhibition even in difficult tasks quite well (i.e., when responses to distracting stimuli had to be suppressed), response times of young and old drivers increased significantly, especially when distractor stimuli had to be ignored. The results demonstrate the high impact of distraction on driving performance in critical traffic situations and indicate a driving-related inhibition deficit in young and old drivers.     

The effect of positive and negative emotions on young drivers: A simulator study

The study examined the influence of affect induction on actual risk-taking behavior in a driving simulator, as well as the links between personal variables (relevance of driving to self-esteem, sensation seeking) and the level of risky driving. Eighty young drivers aged 18–21 (M = 19.24, SD = 0.75) were randomly divided into four induction groups: relaxing positive affect; arousing positive affect; negative affect; and neutral affect. The participants drove on a simulator, with various parameters of risky driving measured before and after emotion priming.As predicted, arousing positive affect and negative affect led to increased risky driving, whereas relaxing positive affect moderated risk-taking. In addition, the results confirm previous findings regarding the personal variables, revealing that higher levels of relevance of driving to self-esteem and sensation seeking are associated with higher levels of risk-taking in the simulated driving.The findings indicate that the driver’s emotional state has a significant effect on risk-taking on the road. Moreover, they show that the conventional use of negative affect in safe driving campaigns is liable to heighten the tendency for risky driving rather than reduce it. In contrast, relaxing positive affect was found to lead to lower risk-taking. The study is unique in revealing a correlation between results previously obtained for the willingness to drive recklessly and actual risky driving behavior observed on a driving simulator. By expanding the understanding of the motivations for youngsters’ risky driving, the study may aid in designing effective, theoretically sound, interventions aimed at reducing the tendency for dangerous driving among young drivers.     

Distracted driving caused by voice message apps: A series of experimental studies

Hand-free voice message apps are frequently used by young people while driving. Previous studies have identified voice message apps as a common source of driving distraction. To quantitatively evaluate the factors contributing to driving distractions, three simulated driving experiments were designed using a dual-task experimental paradigm. In Experiment 1, participants completed several common tasks related to voice messages in WeChat with or without manual operations (perceptual-motor distraction). Experiments 2 and 3 further took into consideration the cognitive distraction level, measured by task difficulty and task frequency. The results showed that, in comparison with undistracted driving, the perceptual-motor distraction related to voice message app use significantly (ps < 0.05) weakened young drivers’ driving performance with respect to the standard deviation of lateral position (SDLP) between two cars (0.24 m), response time (0.21 s) and error rate (0.12) to turning lights, and collision percentage (0.54%), similar to the effects induced by non-voice-based apps. There were also significant differences (ps < 0.05) between driving with secondary tasks with and without continuous manual operations in the SDLP between two cars (0.19 m) and in the response time (0.18 s) and error rate (0.10) to turning lights, which indicates that the distracting effect produced by voice-message apps comes from the related manual operations. The effects of cognitive distraction on driving performance mainly depended on task difficulty level. High-difficulty secondary tasks via a voice message app significantly (ps < 0.05) weakened the driving performance in response time (by 0.13 s and 0.13 s compared to low-difficulty and baseline conditions, respectively) and error rate (by 0.07 and 0.07 compared to low-difficulty and baseline conditions, respectively) to turning lights and collision percentage (by 0.90% and 0.80% compared to low-difficulty and baseline conditions, respectively). The findings provide a theoretical reference for analysing the distracting components of voice messages and suggest that drivers should limit the use of these kinds of apps during driving.     

Capturing the effects of texting on young drivers behaviour based on copula and Gaussian Mixture Models

This research effort aims to investigate the impact of texting on young drivers' behavior and safety based on data from driving simulator experiments, for different driving contexts, like motorways, urban and rural roads, during daytime and night, and for alternative weather conditions (‘clear sky’ and rain). The study offers a complete and comprehensive investigation of the effects of texting on driving behavior, able to provide evidence on policy-making. For the purposes of this study, a driving simulator experiment was carried out where 34 young participants drove predefined driving scenarios. Initially, multivariate copula analysis was used in order to explore statistical inferences among variables, especially since it retains a parametric specification for bivariate dependencies and allows testing of several parametric structures to characterize them. Secondly, alternative copula configurations were tested, which showed that texting and other road and environmental characteristics affect young drivers behavior and in particular more than one outcome can occur at the same time. Finally, Gaussian Mixture Modeling (GMM) was employed, demonstrating that the variables' pairs that presented the strongest correlations were lane departure and speed, as well as speed and reaction time. GMMs application showed that drivers using mobile phones who were involved in a collision presented a different driving behavior compared to the drivers who were occupied but were not involved in a collision.     

An analysis of factors affecting wrong-way driving at a highway entrance using a driving simulator among older drivers with cognitive decline

About 200 highway wrong-way driving cases occur annually in Japan, of which about 70% are caused by older drivers. The number of these cases has remained consistent despite adoption of full-fledged measures against wrong-way driving, thus demonstrating the need for further measures. Reports indicate that older drivers include those with cognitive decline. Moreover, it has been revealed that drivers over 75 years of age who caused wrong-way driving had lower test scores in the usual cognitive function tests performed at the time of licence renewal. However, there is no clear evidence on the relationship between cognitive decline and driving behaviour that stimulates wrong-way driving. In this paper, we reproduced a wrong-way driving approaching a right turn to an expressway exit in a virtual environment using a driving simulator for older drivers, including those with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). In addition to the measurement of driving behaviour and eye-tracking during simulator driving, we conducted a cognitive function test to investigate the relationship between driving behaviour and visual behaviour factors that initiate reverse running and cognitive decline. The results revealed that the reason for the start of a highway wrong-way driving may be a human error at the recognition stage of overlooking a visual wrong-way driving countermeasure, or a human error at the judgement stage of failing to suppress action despite noticing the visual countermeasure. Additionally, attentional and executive functions were related to the wrong-way initiative, although MCI did not affect it. This suggests that those who could not control their wrong-way driving behaviour despite observing the signs had specific executive function deficits.     

Effects of personality on driving behaviors among professional truck drivers: The mediating effect of safety climate

Introduction: The number of traffic accidents involving truck drivers remains high, and strategies to eliminate the probability of such accidents have been proposed, among which enhancing the safety climate has attracted much interest. The main purpose of the current study was to validate the Chinese version of the safety climate scale for truck drivers and apply it to investigate the mediating effect of safety climate between truck driver personality and driving behavior. Method: A total of 389 male truck drivers completed the Big Five Inventory, the Chinese version of the trucking safety climate scale, the driver behavior questionnaire and the positive driver behavior scale. Results: The reliability and validity of the Chinese version of the organization-level safety climate scale and the group-level safety climate scale were confirmed through factor analysis. More importantly, a path analysis revealed that the organization-level safety climate mediated the effects of agreeableness and neuroticism on aggressive violations, ordinary violations and lapses, while the group-level safety climate mediated the influences of agreeableness, neuroticism and openness on positive behavior and all four kinds of aberrant driving behaviors. Conclusions: This study introduced the trucking safety climate scale into China and stressed the significance of improving both the organizational and the group levels of safety climate to reduce accidents involving professional truck drivers. Practical Applications: First, the adapted safety climate scale for Chinese truck drivers contributes to further investigating the role that safety climate plays in the safety problem of truck drivers in China. Moreover, the critical impacts of both levels of the trucking safety climate serve as reminders for relevant companies to not only pay attention to establishing an organization-level safety climate but also invest more effort into promoting the group-level safety climate.     

Attitudes,norms and driving behaviour: A comparison of young drivers in South Africa and Sweden

Culture is increasingly recognised among traffic psychologists to be a factor influencing driving behaviour. This study examines whether a cultural background characterised by rapid social change and high levels of violence and aggression, as in the South African context, has any discernible influences on driving standards or the behaviour of individual drivers. The experiences and attitudes of young drivers in South Africa are compared with a group of young drivers from Sweden, a country whose society has exhibited high levels of stability and where road user behaviour is renowned for its restraint and compliance with regulations.The two cohorts provide information about their exposure to traffic injuries, their attitudes to other drivers and to a range of traffic offences, and to the types of behaviour they personally engage in. Among the South African respondents the notion of a declining standard of driving emerges very clearly, and specific new norms of driving are identified. Such norms are explained to be a consequence of new social values or challenges inherent within contemporary South African society.     

The psychosocial purpose of driving and its relationship with the risky driving behaviour of young novice drivers

BackgroundThe overrepresentation of young drivers in road crashes, injuries and fatalities around the world has resulted in a breadth of injury prevention efforts including education, enforcement, engineering, and exposure control. Despite multifaceted intervention, the young driver problem remains a challenge for injury prevention researchers, practitioners and policy-makers. The intractable nature of young driver crash risks suggests that a deeper understanding of their car use – that is, the purpose of their driving – is required to inform the design of more effective young driver countermeasures.AimsThis research examined the driving purpose reported by young drivers, including the relationship with self-reported risky driving behaviours including offences.MethodsYoung drivers with a Learner or Provisional licence participated in three online surveys (N1 = 656, 17–20 years; N2 = 1051, 17–20 years; N3 = 351, 17–21 years) as part of a larger state-wide project in Queensland, Australia.ResultsA driving purpose scale was developed (the PsychoSocial Purpose Driving Scale, PSPDS), revealing that young drivers drove for psychosocial reasons such as for a sense of freedom and to feel independent. Drivers who reported the greatest psychosocial purpose for driving were more likely to be male and to report more risky driving behaviours such as speeding. Drivers who deliberately avoided on-road police presence and reported a prior driving-related offence had significantly greater PSPDS scores, and higher reporting of psychosocial driving purposes was found over time as drivers transitioned from the supervised Learner licence phase to the independent Provisional (intermediate) licence phase.Discussion and conclusionsThe psychosocial needs met by driving suggest that effective intervention to prevent young driver injury requires further consideration of their driving purpose. Enforcement, education, and engineering efforts which consider the psychosocial purpose of the driving are likely to be more efficacious than those which presently do not. Road safety countermeasures could reduce the young driver’s exposure to risk through such mechanisms as encouraging the use of public transport.     

Effects of hands-free cellular phone conversational cognitive tasks on driving stability based on driving simulation experiment

Driver distraction due to cellular phone usage is a major contributing factor to road crashes. This study compares the effects of conversational cognitive tasks using hands-free cellular phone on driving performance under three distraction conditions: (1) no distraction (no cellular conversation), (2) normal conversation (non-emotional cellular conversation), and (3) seven-level mathematical calculations. A car-following scenario was implemented using a driving simulator. Thirty young drivers with an average age of 24.1 years maintained a constant speed and distance between the subject vehicle and a leading vehicle on the driving simulator, and then respond to the leading vehicle’s emergency stop. The driving performances were assessed by collecting and statistically analyzing several variables of maneuver stability: the drivers’ brake reaction times, driving speed fluctuation, car-following distance undulation, and car-following time-headway undulation. The results revealed that normal conversation on a hands-free cellular phone impaired driving performance. The degree of impairment caused by normal calculation was equivalent to the distraction caused by Level 3 mathematical calculations according to the seven-level calculation baseline. The calculation difficulty of Level 3 is one double-digit figure plus a single-digit figure, and non-carry addition mental arithmetic is required, e.g., 44 + 4. The results indicated that an increase in the level of complexity of the calculation task was associated with an increase in brake reaction time. The seven-level calculation-task baseline could be applied to measure additional distraction effects on driving performance for further comparison.     

Modeling the influence of mobile phone use distraction on pedestrian reaction times to green signals: A multilevel mixed-effects parametric survival model

Understanding and modeling the influence of mobile phone use on pedestrian behaviour is important for several safety and performance evaluations. Mobile phone use affects pedestrian perception of the surrounding traffic environment and reduces situation awareness. This study investigates the effect of distraction due to mobile phone use (i.e., visual and auditory) on pedestrian reaction time to the pedestrian signal. Traffic video data was collected from four crosswalks in Canada and China. A multilevel mixed-effects accelerated failure time (AFT) approach is used to model pedestrian reaction times, with random intercepts capturing the clustered-specific (countries) heterogeneity. Potential reaction time influencing factors were investigated, including pedestrian demographic attributes, distraction characteristics, and environment-related parameters. Results show that pedestrian reaction times were longer in Canada than in China under the non-distraction and distraction conditions. The auditory and visual distractions increase pedestrian reaction time by 67% and 50% on average, respectively. Pedestrian reactions were slower at road segment crosswalks compared to intersection crosswalks, at higher distraction durations, and for males aged over 40 compared to other pedestrians. Moreover, pedestrian reactions were faster at higher traffic awareness levels.     

The influence of personality and cognitive failures on distracted driving behaviors among young adults

Distracted driving is a major safety concern. This paper explores the role personality traits and self-reported cognitive failures play in the propensity towards distracted driving behavior (DDB) among young adults in the United States. Two independent time-separated studies (study 1 with 522 participants; study 2 with 314 participants) confirm the role of cognitive failures as a mediator between specific personality traits and DDB propensity among young adult drivers. The results of this study suggest drivers’ personality traits such as extraversion, conscientiousness, and neuroticism have a direct impact on DDB propensity. In addition, there is evidence that cognitive failure mediates the relationship between these three personality traits and DDB propensity. Lastly, based on the results, agreeableness moderates the relationship between cognitive failure and DDB propensity. Together, these findings suggest that personality traits should be considered in conjunction with driver’s cognitive failure in explaining DDB propensity. Future research using a combination of self-reported, naturalistic and simulation studies may provide additional insight into the relationships between personality traits, cognitive failures, and the propensity towards DDB.     

Predicting intentions to text and call while driving using the theory of planned behaviour

There is extensive evidence that using a mobile phone while driving causes degradation in driving performance, and thereby results in reduced safety on the road. The present study examined intentions to use mobile phones while driving using the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). A total of 212 Ukrainian drivers (mean age = 35 years SD = 10 years; males = 82%) completed a survey that included measures of the TPB components related to intentions to send or read text messages or to make or receive handheld phone calls across two different scenarios; one where they were running late, and the other when they were not in a hurry. Measures of the frequency of mobile phone use were also collected. The results showed that 63% of the sample reported using a mobile phone while driving at least daily, with the most frequent types of usage being making and answering a phone call with a handheld device. The most consistent predictor of intentions to interact with a mobile phone while driving was having a positive attitude towards doing so. Perceived behavioural control was also significantly and positively associated with mobile phone use while driving, but only a small number of associations were found with subjective norms. Our results suggest that intentions to interact with mobile phones while driving may be context specific.