Control of a virtual vehicle influences postural activity and motion sickness in pre-adolescent children

Among adults, persons in control of a vehicle (i.e., drivers) are less likely to experience motion sickness compared to persons in the same vehicle who do not control it (i.e., passengers). This “driver-passenger effect” is well-known in adults, but has not been evaluated in children. Using a yoked-control design with seated pre-adolescent children, we exposed dyads to a driving video game. In each dyad, one child (the driver) drove the virtual vehicle. Their performance was recorded, and later shown to the other child (the passenger). Thus, visual motion stimuli were identical for the members of each dyad. During exposure to the video game, we monitored the quantitative kinematics of head and torso movements. Participants were instructed to discontinue participation immediately if they experienced any symptoms of motion sickness, however mild. Accordingly, the movements that we recorded preceded the onset of motion sickness. Results revealed that Passengers (73.08%) were more likely than Drivers (42.31%) to state that they were motion sick. Drivers tended to move more than passengers, and with a greater degree of multifractality. The magnitude of movement was greater among participants who later reported motion sickness than among those who did not. In addition, for the multifractality of movement a statistically significant interaction revealed that postural precursors of motion sickness differed qualitatively between Drivers and Passengers. Overall, the results reveal that control of a virtual vehicle reduces the risk of motion sickness among pre-adolescent children.     

Sexual activity while driving: A content analysis of media reports

Sexual activity while driving fits the definition of distracted driving because it involves the diversion of attention away from the driving task. However, this risky driving behaviour has received little attention compared to other distracted driving activities. To address the lack of research on sexual activity while driving, the internet was searched from April to June 2020 for media reports in which sexual activities occurred within the cabin of a moving vehicle, taking specific note of: gender, the presence of others, time of day, use of substances, the nature of the circumstances surrounding the incident, and whether crashes had occurred. A total of 106 unique and verified cases were identified from 2004 to 2020. The reports involved 76 male (71.7%) and 30 female drivers (28.3%), and there were 43 (40.5%) serious incidents that involved a crash and 23 fatalities (21.7%). In 17 (16.0%) incidents their vehicle hit another car, and a pedestrian or cyclist was hit in 3 (2.8%) incidents. The risk of a serious incident was higher during oral sex or intercourse than solitary activities (i.e. masturbation). A total of 63 (59.5%) mild incidents (without crashes or fatalities) were identified, in which reports included accounts by witnesses or police regarding sexual activity while driving. Given the potential seriousness of incidents, this topic deserves further research to better understand the prevalence and safety implications of sexual activity while driving.     

Conversing while driving: The importance of visual information for conversation modulation

Multiple studies have shown an increased accident risk due to telephoning while driving. On the other hand, driving with passengers leads to a decreased accident risk. One explanation is a conversation modulation by passengers in cars which leads to a different conversation pattern which is not so detrimental to driving as that when phoning. A driving simulator study was conducted in order to examine this conversation modulation more closely and to find out more about the factors involved in this modulation, especially about the role of visual information available to the passenger. In a within-subject design the conversational patterns of 33 drivers and passengers in different in-car settings (passenger as usual, passenger without front view or passenger without view of the driver) were compared to a hands-free cell phone and to a hands-free cell phone with additional visual information either about the driving situation or the driver. Participants were instructed to have a naturalistic small-talk with a friend. Results of the drivers’ speaking behavior showed a reduction of speaking while driving. Compared to a conversation partner on the cell phone, a passenger in the car varies his speaking rhythm by speaking more often but shorter. Further analyses showed that this effect is also found with a cell phone when providing the conversation partner additional visual information either about the driving situation or the driver. This latter finding supports the idea that conversation modulation is not triggered by being in the car but by the visual information about the driver’s state and the driving situation.     

Field operational test of a seatbelt reminder system: Effects on driver behaviour and acceptance

The long-term effects on driver behaviour and acceptance of a seatbelt reminder system were examined in an on-road study. The system was capable of detecting seatbelt use in all seating positions and produced a two-stage visual and auditory warning if occupants were unrestrained. The effects of this system were evaluated alone and in combination with two other intelligent transport systems: intelligent speed adaptation and a following distance warning system. Twenty-three fleet car drivers drove an instrumented vehicle (SafeCar) for at least 16,500 km as part of their everyday driving. The results revealed that driver and passenger interaction with the seatbelt reminder system led to large and significant decreases in the percentage of trips where occupants were unbelted, in the percentage of total driving time spent unbelted, and in the time taken to fasten a seatbelt in response to system warnings. The seatbelt reminder system was rated by drivers as being useful, effective and socially acceptable, and led to a decrease in drivers’ subjective workload. These results were found even though the baseline pre-exposure seatbelt wearing compliance rates among participants were high.     

Advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS): Demographics,preferred sources of information,and accuracy of ADAS knowledge

Advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) in passenger vehicles can improve highway safety. ADAS place powerful, yet imperfect, automation in the hands of drivers who hold both misconceptions and reservations about ADAS. There is little previous research on drivers’ knowledge of ADAS, and even less on sources of information drivers use to inform their knowledge. The present study addressed this gap, testing hypotheses about influences on understanding of seven ADAS in 634 licensed US drivers (aged 18–82). Multiple regression to predict self-assessed driver characteristics revealed: (a) Drivers who rated themselves as more technically sophisticated tended to be young and male, to be at once less objectively knowledgeable and more confident of their knowledge of ADAS, to avoid car dealers for ADAS information, and to value brand status; (b) Drivers who rated themselves as faster to adopt new technology also tended to be male but to be more objectively knowledgeable about ADAS and to prefer learning about ADAS from owner manuals; (c) Drivers who rated themselves as more confident in using novel vehicle technology tended to be young males with greater objective knowledge of ADAS who valued “hands-on” ADAS experience; (d) Drivers who rated themselves as more concerned about vehicle safety tended to be female, to value crash data, and to rely on hands-on experience to learn about ADAS; (e) Drivers who rated themselves as having greater aesthetic concerns tended to rely on information on styles, colors, wheels when buying a new car and preferred specific ADAS components. Neither of the latter two differed in objective ADAS knowledge. These results make a novel contribution in revealing how driver demographics and characteristics are related to preference for specific sources of information on ADAS and objective knowledge of ADAS. These results can inform future efforts to increase driver understanding of the capabilities and limitations of ADAS and hence increase public safety.     

Gender,Driver Aggression,and Driver Violence: An Applied Evaluation

Drivers completed a questionnaire assessing the likelihood of engaging in mild forms of driver aggression, the frequency of past driver violence, and a disposition toward driver stress. Both male and female drivers reported similar levels of mild driver aggression, supporting the notion that context is important in arousing female aggression. In contrast, driver violence was more frequent among male drivers, demonstrating the relevance of behavioral form within gender linked aggression research. Suggestions for the existence of a gender difference in driver violence, but not mild driver aggression are offered. Finally, driver stress susceptibility was linked to both mild driver aggression and driver violence.     

Minimising risks and distractions for young drivers and their passengers: An evaluation of a novel driver–passenger training program

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate a pilot program designed to teach communication skills to young drivers and passengers. Sixty-two young males recruited as 31 pairs of friends, all aged between 18 and 21 years and holding a probationary drivers licence, were randomly assigned to a training or no-training condition. A training program was developed based upon elements of existing team training programs. Driver and passenger pairs operated a driving simulator through scenarios designed to measure aspects of safe driving behaviour and hazard response. Communications between driver and passenger were also measured. All participants were administered the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire before and approximately 2 months after simulator testing. Compared to the untrained group the trained participants exhibited a larger following distance, reduced speed significantly when faced with an unexpected hazard on the road, and exhibited more safe communications. Although current passenger restrictions are warranted, the present results reveal an alternative view of adolescent passengers: rather than being a negative influence on drivers, adolescent passengers can potentially be trained to become a positive influence.     

Sensitivity to reward and risky driving,risky decision making,and risky health behaviour: A literature review

Young driver road safety has persisted as a global problem for decades, despite copious and diverse intervention. Recently the influence in reward sensitivity, which refers to the individual’s personal sensitivity to rewards, has received attention in health-related research, including more generally through decision making in risky circumstances, and in risky driving behaviour specifically. As such, a literature review and synthesis of the literature regarding reward sensitivity in relation to risky driving, risky decision making, and risky health behaviour, with a focus on literature in which adolescents and young adults feature, is timely. Thirty-one papers were identified, and the literature revealed that young drivers with greater reward sensitivity engage in more risky driving behaviours including speeding, crashes and traffic violations; and that individuals with greater reward sensitivity engage in more risky decision making and other risky health-related behaviours (such as drinking and drug use). Adolescents and young adults exhibit heightened sensitivity to rewards in the presence of peers, which has considerable implications for young driver road safety as research consistently demonstrates that carrying peer passengers places all vehicle occupants at greater risk of being involved in a road crash. Consideration of the influence of reward sensitivity in young driver road safety, and other adolescent/young adult health-related safety, appears to be a promising avenue of intervention, with gain-framed messages more likely to be accepted by young drivers with greater reward sensitivity. Future research in jurisdictions other than Australia and Europe will increase our understanding of the influence of reward sensitivity, and exploration of the differential impacts of reward-responsiveness and fun-seeking specifically are warranted.     

Influence of traffic conditions on driver behavior before making a right turn at an intersection: Analysis of driver behavior based on measured data on an actual road

This paper describes an investigation of the influence of the position of a forward vehicle and following vehicle on the onset of driver preparatory behavior before making a right turn at an intersection. Four experimental vehicles with various sensors and a driving recorder system were developed to measure driver behavior before making a right turn at a specific intersection on a public road. The experimental term was eight weeks to collect data on natural driving maneuvers. The relationships between the remaining distances to the center of the intersection when releasing the accelerator pedal, moving the right foot to cover the brake pedal, and activating the turn signal and the relative distances from the forward and following vehicles were analyzed based on the measured data. The time it took to reach the center of the turn and the driving speed when each behavioral event occurred were also evaluated from the viewpoint of the relative position between the driver’s vehicle and the leading or following vehicles. The results suggest that the drivers approached the target intersection in a car-following condition, and that the positions of the front and rear vehicles and the vehicle velocity influence the onset location and timing of releasing the accelerator pedal and covering the brake pedal. Drivers began to decelerate closer to the center of the intersection when they approached the intersection close to a leading or following vehicle at a reduced driving speed. However, these influences were not reflected in the turn signal operation, indicating that drivers intend to make a right turn at a constant location while approaching a target intersection and that intention appears in the turn signal activation. The findings of this observational study imply that the method of providing route guidance instruction, in which the traffic conditions surrounding the driver’s vehicle are taken into consideration, is effective in reducing driver errors in receiving instruction and following the correct route. The results also indicate that measuring and accumulating different behavioral indices based on traffic conditions contribute to determining the criteria for the presentation timing just before reaching the intersection, which can assist drivers in preparing to make a right turn at a usual location. Driver decelerating maneuvers are used while driving without leading or following vehicles and while driving with a lead and/or following vehicle at long range, and driver turn signal operations are used when approaching an intersection under close car-following conditions.     

Impact of interface design on drivers’ behavior in partially automated cars: An on-road study

In partially automated vehicles, the driver and the automated system share control of the vehicle. Consequently, the driver may have to switch between driving and monitoring activities. This can critically impact the driver’s situational awareness. The human–machine interface (HMI) is responsible for efficient collaboration between driver and system. It must keep the driver informed about the status and capabilities of the automated system, so that he or she knows who or what is in charge of the driving. The present study was designed to compare the ability of two HMIs with different information displays to inform the driver about the system’s status and capabilities: a driving-centered HMI that displayed information in a multimodal way, with an exocentric representation of the road scene, and a vehicle-centered HMI that displayed information in a more traditional visual way. The impact of these HMIs on drivers was compared in an on-road study. Drivers’ eye movements and response times for questions asked while driving were measured. Their verbalizations during the test were also transcribed and coded. Results revealed shorter response times for questions on speed with the exocentric and multimodal HMI. The duration and number of fixations on the speedometer were also greater with the driving-centered HMI. The exocentric and multimodal HMI helped drivers understand the functioning of the system, but was more visually distracting than the traditional HMI. Both HMIs caused mode confusions. The use of a multimodal HMI can be beneficial and should be prioritized by designers. The use of auditory feedback to provide information about the level of automation needs to be explored in longitudinal studies.     

Assessing the effect of long-automated driving operation,repeated take-over requests,and driver’s characteristics on commercial motor vehicle drivers’ driving behavior and reaction time in highly automated vehicles

Automated Commercial Motor Vehicles (CMVs) have the potential to reduce the occurrence of crashes, enhance traffic flow, and reduce the stress of driving to a larger extent. Since fully automated driving (SAE Level 5) is not yet available, automated driving systems cannot perform all driving tasks under all road conditions. Drivers need to regain the vehicle’s control when the system reaches its maximum operational capabilities. This transition from automated to manual is referred to as Take-Over Request (TOR). Evaluating driver’s performance after TORs and assessing effective parameters have gained much attention in recent years. However, few studies have addressed CMV drivers’ driving behavior after TOR and the effect of long-automated driving and repeated TORs. This paper aims to address this gap and gain behavioral insights into CMV drivers’ driving behavior after TOR and assess the effect of the duration of automated operation before TOR, repeated TORs, and driver characteristics (e.g., age, gender, education, and driving history). To accomplish this, we designed a 40-minutes experiment on a driving simulator and assessed the responses of certified CMV drivers to TORs. Drivers’ reaction time and driving behavior indices (e.g., acceleration, velocity, and headway) are compared to continuous manual driving to measure driving behavior differences. Results showed that CMV drivers’ driving behavior changes significantly after the transition to manual regardless of the number of TORs and the duration of automated driving. Findings suggest that 30 min of automated operation intensifies the effect of TOR on driving behaviors. In addition, repeated TOR improves reaction times to TOR and reduces drivers' maximum and minimum speed after TORs. Driver’s age and driving history showed significant effects on reaction time and some driving behavior indices. The findings of this paper provide valuable information to automotive companies and transportation planners on the nature of driver behavior changes due to the carryover effects of manual driving right after automated driving episodes in highly automated vehicles.     

Effects of weather and weather forecasts on driver behaviour

Winter-time slipperiness is a considerable source of elevated road accident risk, especially in northern countries such as Canada, Finland and Sweden. The national road administrations often offer a service to inform drivers of forthcoming weather and driving conditions in different regions. This study addressed the effects of adverse weather and traffic weather forecasts on driver behaviour in Finland. Drivers (n = 1437) answered a questionnaire on perceptions of weather, self-reported driving behaviour, pre-trip acquisition of weather information, and possible travel plan changes. The questionnaires were distributed and instantaneously collected in rural service stations in different weather and driving conditions. Data from traffic weather forecasts, automatic traffic counters and weather measurement stations concerning the same area (and road) were also collected. Acquisition of weather information for the trip was associated with low recent driving experience, increasing age, female gender, long trip in question and very poor (local) conditions perceived by the driver. Drivers who had acquired information had also made more changes to travel plans, but information acquisition did not have an effect on their on-road driving behaviour. However, they estimated prevailing risks higher than those who did not acquire weather information. Drivers generally considered the driving conditions better than the forecast, but significantly less so in darkness than in daylight or civil twilight. Leisure trips were clearly underrepresented during very poor driving conditions forecasts, suggesting that some trips are postponed as a result of adverse weather conditions or forecasts thereof. Drivers reported various kinds of compensatory behaviour during adverse conditions, including a 6–7 km/h target speed decrement. This corresponded to traffic flow speed measurements. The results suggest that the on-road driving behaviour is predominantly affected by the prevailing observable conditions, rather than traffic weather forecasts. It is suggested that if administrators wish to help drivers in adjusting their on-road behaviour in adverse weather conditions, the methods should be more local and technical by nature.     

Reward versus punishment: Reinforcement sensitivity theory,young novice drivers’ perceived risk,and risky driving

One reason that young novice drivers remain statistically over-represented in road deaths is their rate of engagement in risky driving. Prominent contributing factors include driver’s age, sex, personality, risk perception, and their driving experience. This study applied reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST, specifically reward sensitivity and punishment sensitivity) to predict young novice drivers’ perceived risk and self-reported risky driving engagement, while accounting for potential influences of age, sex, and driving experience. Drivers (N = 643, 490 females, 17–25 years, M = 20.02, SD = 2.32) who held an Australian driver’s license (P1, P2, or Open) anonymously completed an online survey containing the Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale, the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire, and a measure of perceived risk of driving-related behaviours. A path analytic model derived from RST showed that perceived risk had the strongest negative association with reported risky driving engagement, followed by reward sensitivity (positive association). Respondent’s age and reward sensitivity were associated with perceived risk. Age, reward sensitivity, and perceived risk were associated with reported engagement in risky driving behaviours. Driver sex only had direct paths with RST variables, and through reward sensitivity, indirect paths to perceived risk, and reported risky driving. Neither punishment sensitivity nor driving experience contributed significantly to the model. Implications and applications of the model, and the unique set of variables examined, are discussed in relation to road safety interventions and driver training.     

Identifying the main factors contributing to driving errors and traffic violations – Results from naturalistic driving data

Researchers have identified various factors that likely affect aberrant driving behaviors and therefore crash risk. However, it remains unclear which of these factors poses the greatest risk for either errors or violations under naturalistic driving conditions. This study investigated important variables contributing to driving errors and traffic violations based on naturalistic driving data from the second Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP 2). In addition, this study identified factors determining the drivers’ willingness to perform common secondary tasks while driving, which have been associated with different degrees of crash risk. Results showed that anger, passenger presence, and persistent individual differences in driver behavior were the main factors associated with committed violations; surprise, high-risk visually distracting secondary tasks, and the driving task demand passing through an interchange were the main factors associated with errors. The willingness to engage in risky secondary tasks while driving appeared to be related to an overall tendency to engage in risky driving behaviors. However, drivers considered the driving context particularly when engaging in visually distracting secondary tasks. This study’s comprehensive approach should be a step towards generating a complete model of the variables that contribute to, or mitigate dangers in traffic.     

Effects of a front-seat passenger on driver attention: An electrophysiological approach

The human attention system is limited in capacity, and when performing two concurrent tasks there is competition for cognitive resources. This is particularly important in dangerous scenarios, such as driving on sharp curves where deficits in performance can be caused by various sources of distraction, including the presence of a passenger in the vehicle. In the present study, a dual-task paradigm was employed to examine the nature of attentional limits while operating a driving simulator in the presence of a passenger. The primary driving task had two levels of difficulty and event-related potentials (ERP) were collected from a secondary auditory task. In addition to several driving performance measures, our main ERP of interest was the P300. In dual-task studies, increases in primary task difficulty have been shown to reduce the amplitude of the P300 elicited by a secondary task. This presumably occurs because attentional resources initially dedicated to the secondary task are consumed by the primary task. The present results showed that compared to driving solo, the presence of a passenger was associated with a decrease in P300 amplitude in the more difficult driving conditions. These results suggest that in-car passengers may consume valuable resources in difficult driving situations that require more attentional focus in the first place.     

Reducing drivers’ mental workload by means of an adaptive man–machine interface

Modern in-vehicle information and communication devices are changing the nature of the driving task. Drivers take it for granted that they are able to divide their attention between the primary task of driving and secondary tasks like monitoring information displays or using mobile phones. While it is commonly accepted that driver information overload can compromise traffic safety, attempts to introduce attention management within the vehicle are nowadays limited to restrictive decisions by legislative bodies. In an increasing number of countries, the use of hands-free phones is enforced by law. In some countries, the use of phones while driving is prohibited altogether. We argue that there is a more intelligent solution to the information overload issue, namely an adaptive man–machine interface that filters information presentation according to situational requirements. We implemented such a filter as a projective real-time computational workload estimator which is based on the assessment of traffic situations detected from an on-board geographical database. Workload estimates are refined by data from sensors that monitor the traffic environment and variables of driving dynamics. The prototype system is operational in a demonstrator vehicle. Whenever the workload estimate exceeds a threshold value, incoming telephone calls are automatically redirected to the telephone mailbox without notifying the driver. An evaluation field experiment that employed objective and subjective methods of assessing workload yielded promising results in terms of the possibilities of reducing workload by means of the adaptive interface. The results are in favour of the idea of a futuristic, situation-aware vehicle which has the potential to enhance comfort and safety while driving.     

Porn,Peers, and Performing Oral Sex: The Mediating Role of Peer Norms on Pornography’s Influence Regarding Oral Sex

ABSTRACT

The goal of this study was to offer insights into how pornography use might be linked to young adults’ sexual experiences via the mediating role of peer norms (i.e., their perceptions of what same-sex peers do sexually). We focused on oral sex behavior, as it is common in pornography and among young people. Young adults (N = 349; ages 19–30; 54% female) were recruited through a crowdsourcing website. Participants completed an anonymous online survey about the frequency that they observed various sexual behaviors in online pornography, the frequency that they engaged in these behaviors, and their perceptions of the frequency that their peers engaged in these behaviors. Frequency of viewing cunnilingus (men) or fellatio (women) in pornography predicted how often they engaged in oral sex, and this association was mediated by their perceptions of how frequently their peers engaged in oral sex. Peer norms did not mediate how frequently they received oral sex. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for understanding how pornography may relate to young people’s social norms surrounding oral sex and their performance of sexual behaviors, as well as for understanding generally how media consumption relates to adoption of media behaviors through suggesting a social norm.     

Driver glance behavior towards displayed images on in-vehicle information systems under real driving conditions

Intelligent vehicle technologies like driver assistance systems and in-vehicle information systems, enhance convenience of the driving experience for drivers and passengers. At the same time, these systems may increase driver distraction and workload. Guidelines developed for this purpose include principles, methods, and assessments which are widely agreed upon, with some being singled out for a particular recommendation or requirement. Especially the display of graphical or photographic images are generally assumed to distract the driver from safely operating the vehicle and should be blocked during driving under all circumstances (so called per se lock outs). This study investigates the effect of displaying graphical and photographical images during driving on driveŕs glance behavior during real-world driving. Findings presented in this paper provide empirical evidence for the unobtrusiveness of these stimuli: Participants didn’t exhibit longer glance durations towards in-vehicle information systems, nor a deterioration of driver distraction parameters such as total eyes off road time and long glance proportion when being compared to driving without displaying any photographic images.     

Physiological indicators of driver workload during car-following scenarios and takeovers in highly automated driving

This driving simulator study, conducted as a part of Horizon2020-funded L3Pilot project, investigated how different car-following situations affected driver workload, within the context of vehicle automation. Electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrodermal activity (EDA)-based physiological metrics were used as objective indicators of workload, along with self-reported workload ratings. A total of 32 drivers were divided into two equal groups, based on whether they engaged in a non-driving related task (NDRT) during automation (SAE Level 3) or monitored the drive (SAE Level 2). Drivers in both groups were exposed to two counterbalanced experimental drives, lasting ∼ 18 min each, of Short (0.5 s) and Long (1.5 s) Time Headway conditions during automated car-following (ACF), which was followed by a takeover that happened with or without a lead vehicle. Results showed that driver workload due to the NDRT was significantly higher than both monitoring the drive during ACF and manual car-following (MCF). Furthermore, the results indicated that a lead vehicle maintain a shorter THW can significantly increase driver workload during takeover scenarios, potentially affecting driver safety. This warrants further research into understanding safe time headway thresholds to be maintained by automated vehicles, without placing additional cognitive or attentional demands on the driver. Our results indicated that ECG and EDA signals are sensitive to variations in workload, which warrants further investigation on the value of combining these two signals to assess driver workload in real-time, to help future driver monitoring systems respond appropriately to the limitations of the driver, and predict their performance in the driving task, if and when they have to resume manual control of the vehicle after a period of automated driving.