A qualitative exploration of the motor skills required for elite triathlon performance

PurposeThe purpose of this research was to investigate the beliefs, attitudes, and experiences of stakeholders in youth triathlon regarding the important motor subskills that are required to be successful at the elite level of triathlon competition.MethodTwenty-five participants were recruited from five stakeholder groups in triathlon and interviewed via video conference. A constructionist and relativist approach to thematic analysis was used to identify three first order themes and several second order themes.ResultsThe first, first order theme was ‘Continuous Motor Skills' which consisted of the invariant features of triathlon's continuous motor skills and the parameterization of continuous motor skills. The second, first order theme was ‘Discrete Motor Skills' and consisted of discrete motor skills involved with cornering and change of direction in each discipline and transition phases in triathlon. The final first order theme was ‘Adaptability in Continuous and Discrete Motor Skills'.ConclusionThis research provides a novel and more broad understanding of the beliefs, attitudes, and experiences of stakeholders in triathlon regarding important motor skills that are required to succeed at the elite level of the sport. This novel and broad understanding of important triathlon motor skills has theoretical implications for evaluating triathlon performance with skill acquisition as a primary focus. Additionally, this research is practically important for coaches, administrators, and athletic performance staff who design training programs and pathways for young, developing triathletes.     

Additional effects of a cognitive task on dual-task training to reduce dual-task interference

ObjectiveWhen we perform dual-tasks in daily life, task performance is generally reduced. As these reductions in performance (i.e., dual-task interference) are responsible for various accidents such as falls, the repeated practice of dual-task (i.e., dual-task training) is often implemented to reduce dual-task interference. However, the risk of various accidents increases with longer dual-task training, as dual-task interference cannot be avoided. Therefore, it is important to achieve training goals more rapidly during dual-task training. This study sought to determine whether a combination of dual-task training and cognitive tasks would accelerate training effects.DesignThe experimental design included four groups: 1) cognitive task training group, 2) dual-task training group, 3) cognitive task and dual-task training group, and 4) non training group.MethodWe assessed single- and dual-task performance before and after the 2-week training sessions. We adopted a dual-task involving knee extension and an auditory reaction, and used N-back task as a cognitive task. On the other hand, dual-task training was the same method to assess dual-task performance.ResultDual-task interference was reduced in all groups in both the tasks. However, the number of participants in the cognitive task and dual-task training group who achieved a reduction in dual-task cost was significantly higher than those in other groups.ConclusionThese findings could contribute to the development of an effective method for reducing dual-task interference and resolving issues caused by dual-task interference in daily life.     

Attentional focus effects on joint covariation in a reaching task

Adopting an external focus of attention (EF) has been found beneficial over internal focus (IF) for performing motor skills. Previous studies primarily examined focus of attention (FOA) effects on performance outcomes (such as error and accuracy), with relatively less emphasis on movement coordination. Given that human movements are kinematically and kinetically abundant (Gefland & Latash, 1998), FOA instructions may change how motor abundance is utilized by the CNS. This study applied the uncontrolled manifold analysis (UCM) to address this question in a reaching task. Healthy young adults (N = 38; 22 ± 1 yr; 7 men, 31 women) performed planar reaching movements to a target using either the dominant or nondominant arm under two different FOA instructions: EF and IF. Reaching was performed without online visual feedback and at a preferred pace. Joint angles of the clavicle-scapula, shoulder, elbow, and wrist were recorded, and their covariation for controlling dowel endpoint position was analyzed via UCM. As expected, IF led to a higher mean radial error than EF, driven by increases in aiming bias and variability. Consistent with this result, the UCM analysis showed that IF led to higher goal-relevant variance among the joints (V_ORT) compared to EF starting from the first 20% of the reach to the end. However, the goal-irrelevant variance (V_UCM)—index of joint variance that does not affect the end-effector position—did not show FOA effects. The index of stability of joint coordination with respect to endpoint position (ΔV) was also not different between the EF and IF. Consistent with the constrained action hypothesis, these results provide evidence that IF disrupted goal-relevant joint covariation starting in the early phases of the reach without affecting goal-irrelevant coordination.     

Impaired social learning in patients with major depressive disorder revealed by a reinforcement learning model

Background/objectivePatients with major depressive disorder (MDD) have altered learning rates for rewards and losses in non-social learning paradigms. However, it is not well understood whether the ability to learn from social interactions is altered in MDD patients. Using reinforcement learning during the repeated Trust Game (rTG), we investigated how MDD patients learn to trust newly-met partners in MDD patients.MethodSixty-eight MDD patients and fifty-four controls each played as ‘investor’ and interacted with ten different partners. We manipulated both the level of trustworthiness by varying the chance of reciprocity (10, 30, 50, 70 and 90%) and reputation disclosure, where partners’ reputation was either pre-disclosed or hidden.ResultsOur reinforcement learning model revealed that MDD patients had significantly higher learning rates for losses than the controls in both the reputation disclosure and non-disclosure condition. The difference was larger when reputation was not disclosed than disclosed. We observed no difference in learning rates for gains in either condition.ConclusionsOur findings highlight that abnormal learning for losses underlies the social learning process in MDD patients. This abnormality is higher when situational unpredictability is high versus low. Our findings provide novel insights into social rehabilitation of MDD.     

Sleep-related improvements in motor learning following mental practice

A wide range of experimental studies have provided evidence that a night of sleep may enhance motor performance following physical practice (PP), but little is known, however, about its effect after motor imagery (MI). Using an explicitly learned pointing task paradigm, thirty participants were assigned to one of three groups that differed in the training method (PP, MI, and control groups). The physical performance was measured before training (pre-test), as well as before (post-test 1) and after a night of sleep (post-test 2). The time taken to complete the pointing tasks, the number of errors and the kinematic trajectories were the dependent variables. As expected, both the PP and the MI groups improved their performance during the post-test 1. The MI group was further found to enhance motor performance after sleep, hence suggesting that sleep-related effects are effective following mental practice. Such findings highlight the reliability of MI in learning process, which is thought consolidated when associated with sleep.     

Motor interference does not impair the memory consolidation of imagined movements

The present study aimed to investigate whether an interference task might impact the sleep-dependent consolidation process of a mentally learned sequence of movements. Thirty-two participants were subjected to a first training session through motor imagery (MI) or physical practice (PP) of a finger sequence learning task. After 2 h, half of the participants were requested to perform a second interfering PP task (reversed finger sequence). All participants were finally re-tested following a night of sleep on the first finger sequence. The main findings revealed delayed performance gains following a night of sleep in the MI group, i.e. the interfering task did not alter the consolidation process, by contrast to the PP group. These results confirm that MI practice might result in less retroactive interference than PP, and further highlight the relevance of the first night of sleep for the consolidation process following MI practice. These data might thus contribute to determine in greater details the practical implications of mental training in motor learning and rehabilitation.     

Verbal and practical intelligence in general anxiety,obsessive compulsive and major depression disorders

IntroductionPrevious researches have shown that anxiety symptoms are negatively associated with measures of intelligence. However, recent findings indicate possible positive relationships between Generalized Anxiety Disorders (GAD) and intelligence. Also, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is associated with a moderate degree of underperformance on cognitive tests, including deficient processing. There are inconsistent results to present the relationship between Major Depression Disorder (MDD) and IQ. The present study has three main aims. The first aim of this study is to investigate the difference between IQ in individuals with GAD, OCD and major depressive disorder, and normal group. The second purpose is to perform a comparative study between the GAD, OCD and MDD groups on verbal and non-verbal intelligence. The third aim of this study is to examine the relationships between GAD, OCD and MDD as well as their underlying cognitive processes, including worry, rumination, and post-event processing, with verbal and non-verbal intelligence.ObjectiveThe present study is performed on four groups of participants including those with GAD, OCD, MDD and Healthy Volunteer (HV) group consisting of individuals without psychiatric disorders.MethodThe number of 50 healthy volunteers as the control group, 45 patients with GAD, 20 patients with OCD and 25 patients with MDD (n = 140) were selected as the case-referent groups. The present study was a cross-sectional type and the research was performed based on the causal-comparative method. Verbal and non-verbal intelligence was measured with the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-3rd edition (WAIS-III). Rumination and post-event processing were measured by PSWQ, RRS-BR, and PEPQ, respectively.ResultsThe results indicate that Verbal Intelligence and Verbal Comprehension Index in GAD patients have significant differences in comparison to the OCD, MDD and control groups. While, the value of the Working Memory Index (WMI) in the normal group is higher than the value of the same index in the GAD, OCD and MDD groups. Also, the values of the Processing Speed Index (PSI) in normal and GAD groups are higher than the OCD and MDD groups. The worry, rumination, and post-event processing in patients with GAD are positively correlated with general and verbal intelligence. But, verbal and non-verbal intelligence had a negative correlation with worry, rumination and post-event processing in healthy volunteers.ConclusionInvestigation of the possible connections between intelligence and the cognitive processes underlying emotional disorders can provide therapeutic strategies for smart individuals who are at risk for GAD.     

Effects of school-based interventions on motivation towards physical activity in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis

IntroductionAssuming that motivation is the key to initiate and sustain beneficial health behaviors, the aim of this systematic review was to analyze the effects of school-based physical activity interventions on a variety of motivational outcomes towards PA in school-aged children and adolescents.MethodsA comprehensive literature search was carried out in six electronic databases to identify randomized controlled trials and quasi-experimental trials examining the effects of PA interventions implemented during the regular school day, e.g., during physical education lessons or lunch breaks. Primary outcomes of interest were students' motivation, basic psychological needs, goal orientation, enjoyment, and motivational teaching climate in physical education. Meta-analyses were conducted for these outcomes using Comprehensive Meta-analysis software. Secondarily, intervention effects on students' PA behaviors were examined and the findings summarized narratively. Methodological quality of studies was evaluated using the Cochrane Collaboration's tool for assessing risk of bias for randomized trials; certainty of evidence on outcome level was evaluated using the GRADE approach.ResultsIn total, 57 studies carried out between 2001 and 2018 were included in this review. Sixteen individual meta-analyses were performed and revealed significant pooled effects for the outcomes enjoyment (g = 0.310), perceived autonomy (g = 0.152), identified regulation (g = 0.378), intrinsic motivation (g = 0.419), self-determination index (g = 0.672), task/mastery climate (g = 0.254), ego/performance climate (g = −0.438), autonomy supportive climate (g = 0.262), task goal orientation (g = 1.370), ego goal orientation (g = −0.188). The narrative data synthesis indicated an increase in students' PA behavior. The overall risk of bias was high across all studies and certainty of evidence of meta-analyzed outcomes ranged from very low to moderate. Moderate certainty of evidence was found for ego/performance climate and ego goal orientation. Conclusions: Meta-analyses suggest that school-based PA interventions may be effective in increasing a variety of motivational outcomes. However, the certainty of evidence was limited in the majority of outcomes. Further research is needed to identify effective intervention strategies that increase students’ motivation towards PA.     

Utilizing driving simulators for persons with multiple sclerosis: A scoping review

ObjectiveThis scoping review synopsized and mapped the evidence on the utility of driving simulators for drivers with Multiple Sclerosis (MS) including participant characteristics (e.g., demographic, clinical) suited to simulator use; and driving scenario environments, maneuvers, and outcomes reflective of driving performance.Data SourcesThe research team searched six databases for English studies on driving simulator performance in drivers with MS.Study SelectionFour reviewers independently screened 976 unique titles, 148 abstracts, and 18 full-text sources for study inclusion or exclusion. Inclusion criteria ensured that studies utilized measures of driving simulator performance in adults 18 years or older with MS.Data ExtractionReviewers independently charted, verified, and achieved consensus on 100% of the data in the extraction table.Data SynthesisThe scoping review included thirteen studies (twelve assessment, one intervention), published between 2001 and 2021. Studies included small samples (N = 11–50) of adults (M age = 36–50 years; 40–91% female), mostly with a relapsing-remitting (53–100%) diagnosis and low to moderate physical disability (Expanded Disability Status Scale score < 6.0). The assessment studies utilized driving scenarios to assess pre-driving (n = 1) or driving abilities (n = 2), responses to hazardous events in suburban (n = 1) or urban environments (n = 4), or the ability to maintain speed or lateral lane positioning during monotonous highway drives (n = 7), with four scenarios also including responses to secondary divided attention tasks. The intervention study utilized driving simulation as a training program to improve driving-related skills.ConclusionsThe evidence on the utility of driving simulators for adults with MS is limited to assessment of driving performance, mostly during monotonous highway drives. Further research should consider exploring how driving simulators can be utilized to assess driving performance in other environments or for intervention. Gender should be examined to support gender diverse populations.     

Testing motivational and self-regulatory mechanisms of action on device-measured physical activity in the context of a weight loss maintenance digital intervention: A secondary analysis of the NoHoW trial

BackgroundTo date, few digital behavior change interventions for weight loss maintenance focusing on long-term physical activity promotion have used a sound intervention design grounded on a logic model underpinned by behavior change theories. The current study is a secondary analysis of the weight loss maintenance NoHoW trial and investigated putative mediators of device-measured long-term physical activity levels (six to 12 months) in the context of a digital intervention.MethodsA subsample of 766 participants (Age = 46.2 ± 11.4 years; 69.1% female; original NoHoW sample: 1627 participants) completed all questionnaires on motivational and self-regulatory variables and had all device-measured physical activity data available for zero, six and 12 months. We examined the direct and indirect effects of Virtual Care Climate on post intervention changes in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and number of steps (six to 12 months) through changes in the theory-driven motivational and self-regulatory mechanisms of action during the intervention period (zero to six months), as conceptualized in the logic model.ResultsModel 1 tested the mediation processes on Steps and presented a poor fit to the data. Model 2 tested mediation processes on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and presented poor fit to the data. Simplified models were also tested considering the autonomous motivation and the controlled motivation variables independently. These changes yielded good results and both models presented very good fit to the data for both outcome variables. Percentage of explained variance was negligible for all models. No direct or indirect effects were found from Virtual Care Climate to long term change in outcomes. Indirect effects occurred only between the sequential paths of the theory-driven mediators.ConclusionThis was one of the first attempts to test a serial mediation model considering psychological mechanisms of change and device-measured physical activity in a 12-month longitudinal trial. The model explained a small proportion of variance in post intervention changes in physical activity. We found different pathways of influence on theory-driven motivational and self-regulatory mechanisms but limited evidence that these constructs impacted on actual behavior change. New approaches to test these relationships are needed. Challenges and several alternatives are discussed.Trial registrationISRCTN Registry, ISRCTN88405328. Registered December 16, 2016, https://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN88405328.     

Factors affecting perceived safety and enjoyment based on driver experience

A positive driving experience, especially for older drivers, increases the attention to the emotional dimensions of driving, such as the driver’s perceived safety. Therefore, this study empirically presents factors affecting driver experience and compares them between older and younger drivers. Consequently, we conducted a face-to-face survey on elderly and young drivers and analyzed the data of 246 drivers using structural equation modeling. The analysis presented measurements and structural model evaluations. Considering the analysis, it was found that driving-related information and car-exterior context affect the perceived safety and enjoyment of a driver’s experience. Additionally, car-exterior context exerts a greater influence on the perceived safety and enjoyment of the elderly drivers’ group than the young drivers’ group. The results of this study will empirically contribute to the satisfaction of driver experience and perceived safety improvement in the future. It also provides a basis for the development of driving interfaces to improve the quality of the driving experience of the elderly.     

Coordination tending towards an anti-phase relationship determines greater sway reduction during entrainment with a simulated partner

The increased risk of falls in the older aged population demands the development of assistive robotic devices capable of effective balance support. For the development and increased user acceptance of such devices, which provide balance support in a human-like way, it is important to understand the simultaneous occurrence of entrainment and sway reduction in human-human interaction. However, sway reduction has not been observed yet during a human touching an external, continuously moving reference, which rather increased human body sway. Therefore, we investigated in 15 healthy young adults (27.20±3.55 years, 6 females) how different simulated sway-responsive interaction partners with different coupling modes affect sway entrainment, sway reduction and relative interpersonal coordination, as well as how these human behaviours differ depending on the individual body schema accuracy. For this, participants were lightly touching a haptic device that either played back an average pre-recorded sway trajectory (“Playback”) or moved based on the sway trajectory simulated by a single-inverted pendulum model with either a positive (Attractor) or negative (Repulsor) coupling to participant's body sway. We found that body sway reduced not only during the Repulsor-interaction, but also during the Playback-interaction. These interactions also showed a relative interpersonal coordination tending more towards an anti-phase relationship, especially the Repulsor. Moreover, the Repulsor led to the strongest sway entrainment. Finally, a better body schema contributed to a reduced body sway in both the “reliable” Repulsor and the “less reliable” Attractor mode. Consequently, a relative interpersonal coordination tending more towards an anti-phase relationship and an accurate body schema are important to facilitate sway reduction.     

Exploration of anomalous perceptual experiences in migraine between attacks using the Cardiff Anomalous Perceptions Scale

Distortions in sensory experiences that precede a migraine attack have been extensively documented, the most well-known being the visual aura. Distortions in the experience of other senses are also reported as part of an aura, albeit less frequently, together with changes in the perception or ownership of the body or body parts. There are many examples of differences in aspects of visual perception between migraine and control groups, between attacks, but not as much on unusual experiences involving other senses, the sense of the body or the experience of the environment. Seventy-seven migraine (33 with aura) and 74 control participants took part. Anomalous perceptions were experienced by both migraine and control groups, but more with migraine experienced them and rated them as more distressing, intrusive and frequent. Associations with reports of visual triggers of migraine and visual discomfort are presented. This study is the first to show relationships between these factors.     

The interplay between parental behaviors and adolescents' sports-related values in understanding adolescents' dropout of organized sports activities

Using short-term longitudinal data, the primary goal of the present study was to examine the interplay between adolescents’ sports-related intrapersonal (e.g., sports values) and interpersonal factors (e.g., perceived parental involvement) in relation to sports dropout. A secondary goal was to explore the direction of effects in the association between intra- and interpersonal factors. A total of 420 adolescents (39% girls, M_age = 14.06; SD_age = 0.33) responded to a set of survey questions over two consecutive years. Results from structural equation modeling suggested that parental involvement predicted adolescents’ dropout one year later, via sports values. Further, the results suggested that the direction of influence is mainly from parents to adolescents. Overall, the findings indicate that adolescents whose parents attend their practices and games perceive sports activities as fun, important and useful; as a result, adolescents are less likely to dropout. The findings offer an improved understanding of how parents’ behaviors may influence adolescents’ dropout of organized sports.     

Using targeted visceroception to improve interoceptive sensibility and emotion regulation

Focusing on one's body can improve the awareness and regulation of emotion. Interoception – sensing the physiological condition of the body, particularly of the viscera – appears to play an important role. While the majority of previous research studies have examined interoceptive sensitivity (i.e., detection of objectively measurable physiological changes), there has been relatively limited investigation of interoceptive sensibility (i.e., subjective awareness of those changes), and even fewer studies permitting causal conclusions. The current study is part of a randomised controlled trial on visceroception in the context of emotion regulation, using an 8-week intervention involving focused attention on either cardiac or gastrointestinal activity. Group differences in emotion regulation and reactivity were assessed using the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA), the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale, and the Emotion Reactivity Scale (ERS). The findings suggest that focussed attention on gastrointestinal activity (i.e., gastroception), in particular, improves interoceptive sensibility and emotion regulation, as evidenced by increases on the MAIA's Noticing, Body Listening, and Self-regulation subscales, and decreases on the Arousal subscale of the ERS. Gastroception may make distinct contributions to the benefits of body focus in a research context where the gut is often overlooked.     

Novel use of a virtual driving assessment to classify driver skill at the time of licensure

Motor vehicle crash rates are highest immediately after licensure, and driver error is one of the leading causes. Yet, few studies have quantified driving skills at the time of licensure, making it difficult to identify at-risk drivers before independent driving. Using data from a virtual driving assessment implemented into the licensing workflow in Ohio, this study presents the first population-level study classifying degree of skill at the time of licensure and validating these against a measure of on-road performance: license exam outcomes. Principal component and cluster analysis of 33,249 virtual driving assessments identified 20 Skill Clusters that were then grouped into 4 major summary “Driving Classes”; i) No Issues (i.e. careful and skilled drivers); ii) Minor Issues (i.e. an average new driver with minor vehicle control skill deficits); iii) Major Issues (i.e. drivers with more control issues and who take more risks); and iv) Major Issues with Aggression (i.e. drivers with even more control issues and more reckless and risk-taking behavior). Category labels were determined based on patterns of VDA skill deficits alone (i.e. agnostic of the license examination outcome). These Skill Clusters and Driving Classes had different distributions by sex and age, reflecting age-related licensing policies (i.e. those under 18 and subject to GDL and driver education and training), and were differentially associated with subsequent performance on the on-road licensing examination (showing criterion validity). The No Issues and Minor Issues classes had lower than average odds of failing, and the other two more problematic Driving Classes had higher odds of failing. Thus, this study showed that license applicants can be classified based on their driving skills at the time of licensure. Future studies will validate these Skill Cluster classes in relation to their prediction of post-licensure crash outcomes.     

Long-term efficacy of exercise across diagnostically heterogenous mental disorders and the mediating role of affect regulation skills

BackgroundExercise interventions are efficacious in reducing disorder-specific symptoms in various mental disorders. However, little is known about long-term transdiagnostic efficacy of exercise across heterogenous mental disorders and the potential mechanisms underlying treatment effects.MethodsPhysically inactive outpatients, with depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, insomnia or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder were randomized to a standardized 12-week exercise intervention, combining moderate exercise with behavior change techniques (BCTs) (n = 38), or a passive control group (n = 36). Primary outcome was global symptom severity (Symptom Checklist-90, SCL-90-R) and secondary outcomes were self-reported exercise (Physical Activity, Exercise, and Sport Questionnaire), exercise-specific affect regulation (Physical Activity-related Health Competence Questionnaire) and depression (SCL-90-R) assessed at baseline (T1), post-treatment (T2) and one year after post-treatment (T3). Intention-to-treat analyses were conducted using linear mixed models and structural equations modeling.ResultsFrom T1 to T3, the intervention group significantly improved on global symptom severity (d = −0.43, p = .031), depression among a depressed subsample (d = −0.62, p = .014), exercise (d = 0.45, p = .011) and exercise-specific affect regulation (d = 0.44, p = .028) relative to the control group. The intervention group was more likely to reveal clinically significant changes from T1 to T3 (p = .033). Increases in exercise-specific affect regulation mediated intervention effects on global symptom severity (ß = −0.28, p = .037) and clinically significant changes (ß = −0.24, p = .042).ConclusionsThe exercise intervention showed long-term efficacy among a diagnostically heterogeneous outpatient sample and led to long-lasting exercise behavior change. Long-term increases in exercise-specific affect regulation within exercise interventions seem to be essential for long-lasting symptom reduction.     

Towards modern post-coma care based on neuroscientific evidence

BackgroundUnderstanding the mechanisms underlying human consciousness is pivotal to improve the prognostication and treatment of severely brain-injured patients. Consciousness remains an elusive concept and the identification of its neural correlates is an active subject of research, however recent neuroscientific advances have allowed scientists to better characterize disorders of consciousness. These breakthroughs question the historical nomenclature and our current management of post-comatose patients.MethodThis review examines the contribution of consciousness neurosciences to the current clinical management of severe brain injury. It investigates the major impact of consciousness disorders on healthcare systems, the scientific frameworks employed to identify their neural correlates and how evidence-based data from neuroimaging research have reshaped the landscape of post-coma care in recent years.ResultsOur increased ability to detect behavioral and neurophysiological signatures of consciousness has led to significant changes in taxonomy and clinical practice. We advocate for a multimodal framework for the management of severely brain-injured patients based on precision medicine and evidence-based decisions, integrating epidemiology, health economics and neuroethics.ConclusionsMajor progress in brain imaging and clinical assessment have opened the door to a new era of post-coma care based on standardized neuroscientific evidence. We highlight its implications in clinical applications and call for improved collaborations between researchers and clinicians to better translate findings to the bedside.     

Biological and psychological predictors of heart rate patterns during physical activity

ObjectiveLatent class modeling (LCM) offers a promising approach for examining correlates of heart rate (HR) patterns over multiple exercise sessions. This research examined biological and psychological variables associated with different patterns of HR response to physical activity (PA).MethodsIn a three-arm randomized controlled trial (exercise video games vs. standard exercise vs. non-exercise control), HR was recorded during PA sessions over a 12-week period. LCM identified three patterns of HR during PA across 189 participants in active arms: 1) high HR across sessions with low variability within sessions, 2) linear increase in HR across sessions with low variability within sessions, and 3) high variability in HR across all sessions. Associations with biological (resting heart rate, blood pressure, BMI, age, cholesterol, triglycerides, HbA1c) and psychological (depression, motivations for PA, PA-induced feelings) predictors of latent class membership were iteratively tested.ResultsPsychological variables played as important a role in the final model as biological variables for predicting latent class membership. Few differences were found between LC1 and LC2, but LC3 differed from the other two groups in that participants were likelier to report that they feel revitalized after PA (vs. LC1 and LC2), to be less motivated for PA (vs. LC1), reported greater depression (vs. LC1 and LC2), and were younger (vs. LC1).ConclusionsThese findings demonstrate the potential of LCM to identify biological and psychological factors associated with chronotropic responses to PA, and advance understanding of the role of psychological factors in chronotropic PA outcomes.