Psychological characteristics in women football players: Skills,mental toughness,and anxiety

Women's football has been far less studied than men's. This work's objectives were to: (1) analyze the differences in psychological skills, mental toughness (MT), and anxiety in women football players according to their level (national team, first division, and second division); and (2) predict those three levels (using a multivariate model) according to the players’ psychological skills, mental toughness, and anxiety. One hundred and forty‐two Icelandic women football players (23.5 ± 3.5 years) participated in the study. They were classified into three groups according to their level: national team, and first and second divisions. Three questionnaires were used: the Test of Performance Strategies Questionnaire, the Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire, and the Sport Anxiety Scale‐2 questionnaire. A one‐way ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc correction was used to examine differences between teams. Applying a classification tree analysis, the participants were classified into three groups according to their level. There were few differences between the three groups in psychological skills, but in mental toughness and anxiety the national team had the highest and lowest values respectively, and the first and second division players differed in relaxation in competition (TOPS), total score and confidence (SMTQ), and worry (SAS‐2). The classification tree correctly classified 54.9% of the sample with the variables total score (SMTQ) and activation in practice (TOPS). Therefore, given the relevance that psychological attributes appear to have for women football players’ performance, it would seem indispensable to incorporate the figure of the sports psychologist into national and club teams.     

How many creatives are enough? Exploring how manipulating the number of creative players in the opposing team impacts footballers' performance during small-sided games

This study explored how varying the number of creative opponents affects youth players' performance during football small-sided games (SSGs). Initially, 60 players from 3 different age groups with n = 20 in each (under-9, U9; under-11, U11; and under-13, U13) were tested during SSGs to rank them according to their creative potential. Based on these rankings, four players shown to possess with a medium creative potential were assigned to the intermediate team for each age group. This team competed against a team on which players with high creative potential were progressively included (from one to finally all four players, 1C to 4C) during a 4-a-side plus goalkeeper SSG. The results showed that U9 players increased the individual space explored when facing more creative opponents (p = .012), while the U11 (p = .026) and U13 (p < .001) only increased when facing 2C and 3C. Playing against more creative opponents induced more variability in the distance to own (p = .046) and the opponent team's centroid (p = .046) in the U9, regularity in the U11 (team centroid, p < .001; opponents' centroid, p = .001) and lower regularity in the U13 (team centroid, p = .013 opponents' centroid, p = .009). These distinct movement patterns seemed to reflect the differences in players' perceptual and motor skills. A higher creative score was found against 1C (vs 2C and 4C, p = .006) and 3C (vs 4C, p = .006) in the U9. The results from the effect sizes indicated higher values on the players' attempts, fluency and versatility when facing 1C to 3C, whereas a clear decrease was observed against 4C for all age groups. Hence, moderate and high demanding scenarios prompt the emergence of new behaviours while extremely high demanding scenarios (i.e. 4C) seem to constrain all the creativity components. Overall, adding creative players mostly impacts the team's collective behaviour rather than the players' creativity-related skills.     

Personality accounts for stable preferences and expectations across a range of simple games

Behaviour on even simple experimental games shows considerable individual differences, but previous attempts to link these preferences to stable personality traits have had mixed results. Here we address three limitations of earlier studies, namely: (1) uncertainties concerning the reliability of preferences; (2) use of personality instruments with limited cross-study comparability; and (3) confounds where more than one psychological motive can lead to a particular choice. Sixty-seven participants completed 12 distinct real-money games twice over a two-week interval along with 6 measures concerning their expectations about other players’ choices. Personality was measured using the full NEO-PI-R. Choices were highly stable across time (r = .84). Moreover, choices on the 12 games and 6 expectations reflected a single underlying dimension of “prosocial orientation”, measuring concern for the payoffs received by other players. Scores on the prosocial orientation dimension were related to personality, with openness, (low) neuroticism, and (low) extraversion retained as significant predictors.     

Development and preliminary validation of a mental toughness inventory for Australian football

ObjectivesThis paper describes the development and preliminary evaluation of the Australian football Mental Toughness Inventory (AfMTI).MethodsConfirmatory and exploratory factor analyses were employed to explore the factor structure of a pool of items designed to capture the key components of mental toughness in Australian football [Gucciardi, D.F., Gordon, S., & Dimmock, J.A. (2008). Towards an understanding of mental toughness in Australian football. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 20, 261–281.] Correlations between the four-factor inventory and flow, resilience, and social desirability were examined. The discriminant validity of the inventory was also assessed. Multisource ratings (self, parent, and coach) of the AfMTI were examined in experiment two.ResultsThe AfMTI is a 24-item scale that measures four components of mental toughness in Australian football – thrive through challenge, sport awareness, tough attitude, and desire success. It was shown to have adequate internal reliability estimates across different raters (α = .70–.89). Moderate correlations with flow and resilience were evidenced, while minimal correlations existed with social desirability. Multisource data were somewhat equivocal; correlational data suggested a disagreement between raters, whereas an ANOVA suggested agreement between raters.ConclusionsPreliminary data on the factor structure, internal reliability, and construct validity of the AfMTI were encouraging. However, the factor structure, reliability, and validity of the AfMTI must be verified through further psychometric examinations before it can be considered a useful tool for measuring mental toughness in Australian football.     

Understanding mental toughness at a Women’s Australian rules football club

Scholars have argued that mental toughness is a term that represents hypermasculine ideals. This hypermasculinity ideal could be considered relevant in the sport of Australian rules football, which has been played, at the professional level, by male athletes for the majority of its existence. Given the rising popularity of the Australian Football League Women’s (AFLW), the present research sought to explore how the term mental toughness was understood at an AFLW club through a cultural sport psychology lens. Interviews were conducted with players (n = 4) and coaches (n = 6) from an AFLW club over the course of a competitive season. Data were transcribed verbatim and thematically analysed, with themes constructed to correspond with different levels of contextual influence. From this analysis, the club values and underlying assumptions, the social truths, and the role models/archetypes that provided a collective understanding of the term were identified. Mental toughness was defined by high-performance values of the men’s game, which had implications for female athletes in this environment who are not afforded the same opportunities to fully embody these values. Mental toughness is positioned, in this environment, as an ideal with different meanings for female athletes due to structural factors associated with elite-level competition (e.g., full-time versus part-time professionalism).     

Dorian Gray without his portrait: Psychological,social, and physical health costs associated with the Dark Triad

We examined how the Dark Triad (i.e., narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism) traits—as different social strategies—were associated with various health outcomes. In samples of American undergraduates (N = 1389), Australian high school students (N = 2023), and British undergraduates (N = 280), we examined the physical, social, and psychological costs associated with the Dark Triad traits. Narcissism was linked to few mental and physical ailments, suggesting it may provide a social buffer from negative health outcomes (Studies 1 and 2). Psychopathy (Studies 1 and 2) and Machiavellianism (Study 2) were linked to a number of psychological and physical health conditions. In addition, psychopathy was related to diminished life expectancy, whereas narcissism was related to enhanced life expectancy (Study 3). Our findings provide evidence that each of these personality traits is linked to various psychosocial tradeoffs and different methods of coping with stress and adaptive problems.     

From childhood to senior professional football: A multi-level approach to elite youth football players’ engagement in football-specific activities

ObjectivesThe main aim of this study was to identify the development of engagement in football-specific activities of elite youth association football (soccer) players who have made the transition to senior professional status or not.DesignComparative research design.MethodData were collected from all elite youth players (N = 745) within the age-range of 14–21 years from all Norwegian Premier League clubs, using a retrospective questionnaire. A within elite-group comparison of players who had obtained a senior professional contract or not was conducted by using multi-level modeling (n = 491).ResultsThe results showed that although the professional players reported to have accumulated more overall practice hours than non-professionals from ages 6 to 19 years, none of these differences were significant. The professional players reported to have accumulated significantly more hours in play and coach-led practice at the youngest age categories. No significant differences were identified at older age categories or for other types of football-specific practice at any age.ConclusionsDifferences in performance attainment may be due to variation in the amount and types of football practice at the earliest years of participation, but may also be related to other factors than the number of hours spent in certain football-specific activities. We argue that implementation of multi-level modeling represents an important progression within practice history research, and is necessary to account for the actual individual’s development over time in addition to identify how different variables may affect the developmental process.     

The Relationship Between Psychological Distress and Personality in Women from Families with Familial Breast/Ovarian or Hereditary Non-polyposis Colorectal Cancer in the Absence of Demonstrated Mutations

The aim of this study was to explore associations between mental and cancer-specific distress (psychological distress) and personality traits in healthy women belonging to families with familial cancer and absence of demonstrated mutations. We included 238 healthy women from families with familial breast-ovarian cancer (FBOC) or hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC). They responded to a questionnaire including validated instruments for psychological distress and personality traits. Information on demography and cancer-related issues were also collected. Significant associations between psychological distress and personality traits were found in these women. The traits of Optimism and Harm avoidance showed the strongest association with both types of distress. Associations between psychological distress and personality traits were observed in women from families with FBOC or HNPCC that fulfilled clinical criteria for familial breast/ovarian cancer in the absence of demonstrated mutations. Screening for such traits could be helpful in genetic counseling.     

Physical activity and personality: A behaviour genetic analysis

ObjectivesThe aim of this study was to obtain a heritability estimate of exercise behaviour in twins and to examine the genetic and environmental contributions to phenotypic associations between personality and exercise behaviour.DesignTwin study was used, the sample including 339 twin pairs (105 MZ and 234 DZ), between 15 and 22 years of age (M = 18.6, SD = 2.31).MethodThe participants filled in a NEO-FFI personality inventory and answered two questions about the frequency (FPE) and intensity (IPE) of physical exercise. We also calculated the composite physical exercise score (CS) representing a combination of FPE and IPE items.ResultsThe broad heritability estimates of three physical exercise variables (FPE, IPE, CS) were significant, with results in the 0.55 to 0.69 range. We found significant phenotypic associations with neuroticism and extraversion. Contrary to our expectations, correlations with conscientiousness were not significant. People scoring higher on extraversion and lower on neuroticism reported exercising more often and more intensely. Phenotypic association between personality traits and physical exercise variables were due to overlapping genetic influences.ConclusionsOur results indicate that the genetic factors contributing to an active lifestyle overlap with those contributing to personality traits extraversion and neuroticism, in line with the “nature” hypothesis which infers the presence of biological differences in predisposition for regular physical activity.     

An Exploration of the Experiences of Elite Youth Footballers: The Impact of Organizational Culture

The present study explored how the organizational cultural experiences of elite youth footballers shaped their identity development and behavior. The first author occupied the position of sport psychology practitioner-researcher within 1 professional football club over 3 years. Traditional ethnographic research methods were employed, including observations, field notes, reflections, and informal interviews. A cultural sport psychology perspective on identity as a social construction and research on the cultural characteristics of professional football were used as frameworks to make sense of the data. Despite the introduction of the Elite Player Performance Plan in 2012, the traditional masculine culture of professional football dominated the studied club. Creative nonfiction vignettes revealed that youth players were encouraged to develop their self-stories focused on a single-minded dedication to professional football. The limited identity-related resources offered at both club and cultural level are detrimental for players in terms of their well-being and long-term psychological development. From the results of this study, we suggest that future sports psychology practice within professional football may best be delivered at an organizational level. However, for sport psychologists to be effective in this role, they must develop an understanding of the subcultural features and characteristics of the organization. In line with this, there would be great value in introducing a focus on organizational culture within sport psychology professional training and education routes.

Lay Summary: This paper explores the impact of the professional football culture on the psychological development of elite youth footballers. From the findings we suggest that sport psychology should be delivered at an organisational level.     

Do developmental differences in mental toughness exist between specialized and invested Australian footballers?

Using a cross-sectional design, the primary purpose of the present study was to examine developmental differences in mental toughness between specialized and invested Australian footballers. A secondary purpose was to examine the psychometric properties of the Australian football Mental Toughness Inventory (AfMTI; Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2009a) with a sample of youth footballers. Participants were 350 footballers aged between 13 and 18 (M = 15.88; SD = 1.71); 144 (M_age = 14.06; SD = .89) and 206 (M_age = 17.02; SD = 1.06) footballers from the specialized and investment developmental stages, respectively. A confirmatory factor analysis of the AfMTI using AMOS did not reveal support for its psychometric structure; however, a revised version received support. A MANOVA revealed the presence of a significant difference between the two developmental groups, and follow-up ANOVA’s indicated that the desire success and sport awareness subscales contributed to multivariate effect. It appears that developmental differences should be considered in future theorizing on the development of mental toughness.     

Psychological talent predictors in early adolescence and their empirical relationship with current and future performance in soccer

ObjectivesThis study examined the relationship of talented soccer players' psychological characteristics with current and future performance.DesignBoth a cross-sectional and a prospective design were used.MethodThe sample consisted of 2677 U12 players in the German talent development program. Self-report questionnaires captured psychological dispositions and skills that were assigned to the areas of motivation, volition, self-referential cognition, and emotion. Current performance was operationalized by a motor score representing speed abilities and technical skills as well as by coaches' subjective ratings (A = highly promotion-worthy, B = promotion-worthy, C = partly promotion-worthy). The level of future performance was assessed by examining whether individuals were selected for professional clubs' youth academies in U16.ResultsThis study revealed that only self-referential cognitions had a significant and relevant association with the motor score (0.10 ≤ r ≤ 0.37). The players in the subjectively rated categories significantly differed in 10 of 17 psychological scales (0.01 ≤ η² ≤ 0.03). In most of the scales, A-players showed more positively connoted values compared to B- and C-players. Logistic regressions demonstrated that 10 of 17 characteristics explained a significant proportion of players' future success. Players with high dispositions in these characteristics had a greater chance of achieving a higher performance level compared to players with low dispositions (1.61 ≤ OR ≤ 2.65).ConclusionsExpanding on previous research, this study enabled comparisons between a wide range of psychological characteristics with regard to their relevance for soccer performance, leading to conclusions for talent identification and development.     

Implementation of a mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program to reduce stress,anxiety, and depression and to improve psychological well-being among retired Iranian football players

ObjectivesTo test whether a mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program could reduce symptoms of anxiety, stress, and depression, and increase psychological well-being among retired Iranian football players compared to an active control group.DesignRandomized controlled trial, with an 8-week MBSR intervention (16 group sessions, 90 min each) and an active control group. Three data assessments were performed at baseline, eight weeks later after completion of the intervention, and again twelve weeks later at follow-up.MethodsForty male retired football players (M_age = 34.05, SD = 1.72) were randomly assigned either to the MBSR intervention or the active control condition. All participants completed questionnaires on perceived stress, anxiety, depression, and psychological well-being. Repeated measures analyses of variance were used to assess time by group interactions.ResultsSignificant time by group interaction effects were found for all outcomes. In the MBSR group, psychological well-being improved and symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression decreased over time from baseline to intervention completion and to follow-up. In the active control group, the outcomes remained relatively stable across time.ConclusionsThe present findings suggest that among male retired Iranian football players, a MBSR intervention has the potential to reduce symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression, and to increase their psychological well-being. Potential (underlying) mechanisms were not assessed in the present study. In future investigations, researchers should try to gain a deeper understanding of the mechanisms which may explain the observed effects.     

What is the size of the relationship between global mental toughness and youth experiences?

Youth experiences are a core requirement for components of positive youth development and may be associated with an athlete’s mental toughness. The purposes of this study were to examine the relationship between mental toughness and youth experiences. Two hundred and ninety nine athletes (M_age 19.48 years, SD 1.30) completed the Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire and Youth Experiences Survey. We then conducted a standard multiple regression on the data. R for regression was significantly different from zero, F(6, 292) = 8.106, p = .0001, with R² at .14. Altogether, 14% (13% adjusted) of the variance in mental toughness was accounted for by youth experiences. These results reveal that initiative experiences have the strongest relationship with mental toughness; however, youth experiences may not be as important as previous studies suggest.     

The Effect of Higher-Order Gratitude on Mental Well-Being: Beyond Personality and Unifactoral Gratitude

The purpose of this study was to examine whether higher-order gratitude consisting of multiple components (i.e., thanking others, thanking God, cherishing blessings, appreciating hardship, and cherishing the moment) explains variances in integrated mental well-being, including depression, self-esteem, and psychological well-being after controlling for gender, age, religion, the Big Five personality traits (i.e., openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism), and unifactorial gratitude (GQ). A total of 231 participants were recruited to complete questionnaires measuring the variables of interest. The results indicated that higher-order gratitude made a significant unique contribution to psychological well-being, self-esteem, and depression (3 % to 5 % of the variance, p?<?.05) above the effects of demographic variables, personality traits, and unifactorial gratitude. These findings suggested that higher-order gratitude is more than just personality traits or unifactorial gratitude, and it is important in its own right for integrated mental well-being.     

Differential relationships in the association of the Big Five personality traits with positive mental health and psychopathology

According to the two continua model of mental health, psychopathology and positive mental health (emotional, psychological, and social well-being) are related but distinct continua. This study investigates the two continua model by examining whether psychopathology and positive mental health show differential associations with the Big Five personality traits. The paper draws on data of the representative LISS panel (CentERdata). Participants (N = 1161; age 18-88) filled out questionnaires on personality, psychopathology, and positive mental health. Personality traits were differentially related to psychopathology and positive mental health, supporting the two continua model. Emotional stability (reversed neuroticism) is the main correlate of psychopathology, whereas the personality traits extraversion and agreeableness are uniquely associated with positive mental health.     

Relationship between Mental Health and Burden among Primary Caregivers of Outpatients with Schizophrenia

There is growing recognition that caring for a patient with schizophrenia often results in high levels of perceived burden and poorer overall mental health for caregivers. A quantitative cross‐sectional design and standardized instruments were used to collect data from 355 primary caregivers of adults in outpatient care with schizophrenia in China. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the association between caregiver burden and mental health among primary caregivers and whether this association is influenced by personality, coping style, and family functioning, based on a diathesis–stress perspective. Goodness‐of‐fit indices (χ²/df = 1.406, GFI = 0.919, CFI = 0.957, etc.) confirmed that the modified model fit the data well. In line with the diathesis–stress model, and with this study's hypotheses, we found that caregiver burden was significantly related to mental health outcomes directly. The final model showed that personality traits, coping style, and family function influenced the relationship between caregiver burden and mental health. The neuroticism personality traits have a direct effect on caregiver burden and family functioning in this sample. Coping style had a direct effect on the caregiver burden, and family functioning had a direct effect on the caregiver burden. Our final model about primary caregivers can be applied clinically to predict mental health outcomes from caregiver burden.     

A Pre-Match Video Self-Modeling Intervention in Elite Youth Football

In this study, a self-modelling video intervention was delivered to four elite youth soccer players over 13 weeks of the competitive soccer season. A multiple-baseline, repeated measures single-subject design was used to explore the impact of the intervention on subcomponents of soccer performance and psychological variables, including self-efficacy and positive/negative affect. Statistical analysis indicated that there were significant changes between pre- and post-intervention scores for two players (1 & 3) on three subcomponents of performance (turns, headers and tackles). The findings of this study highlight the potential benefits of designing individualised pre-match video interventions with elite youth athletes.

Lay Summary:

Video self-modelling (VSM) is a behavioural intervention in which an athlete views a video of themselves engaged in adaptive behaviour, in order to learn to reproduce it effectively under pressure. In this study, the impact of a self-modelling video intervention is examined within a youth football soccer environment.     

Mental health in retired professional football players: 12-month incidence,adverse life events and support

ObjectivesThe primary aim was to explore the incidence of symptoms of common mental disorders (CMD; distress, sleep disturbance, anxiety/depression, adverse alcohol use) in retired professional football players and to explore the association between adverse life events and the onset of symptoms of CMD. The secondary aim was to get an insight into the views and needs of retired professional football players on medical support related to symptoms of CMD.DesignAn observational prospective cohort study with three measurements over a follow-up period of twelve months was conducted among retired professional football players.MethodThe data for symptoms of CMD and adverse life events was collected by using validated questionnaires. The views and needs were explored by means of five questions.ResultsThe 12-month incidence of symptoms of CMD (self-reported and not clinically diagnosed) ranged from 11 to 29%. Retired professional football players with one or two life events were 1.7 times more likely to report distress than retired football players with no life events. The risk with three or more recent life events on sleep disturbance was more than 4.5 times higher than with no recent life events.ConclusionsThe 12-months incidence of symptoms of CMD in retired professional football players seems high compared to the general population. More life events showed a higher risk of experiencing distress and sleep disturbance in retired professional football players. The views and needs showed that there is a need for support for current and former professional football players.