Academic Hardiness as a Moderator between Evaluative Concerns Perfectionism and Academic Procrastination in Students

Abstract

Academic procrastination is a common phenomenon in students that can have a negative impact on effective learning, academic achievement, self-esteem, and quality of life. This study examined the associations among the two dimensions of perfectionism (personal standards perfectionism and evaluative concerns perfectionism), academic hardiness, and academic procrastination, as well as the moderating role of academic hardiness in the relationship between the two dimensions of perfectionism and academic procrastination. Participants of this study included 410 high school students in grades 9 to 12 from six schools in Tehran, Iran who completed the Almost Perfect Scale-Revised, the Academic Hardiness Scale, and the Procrastination Assessment Scale. The results indicated that personal standards perfectionism and academic hardiness had negative relationships with academic procrastination, whereas evaluative concerns perfectionism had a positive relationship with academic procrastination. Interaction-moderation analysis demonstrated that academic hardiness only played a buffering role in the relationship between evaluative concerns perfectionism and academic procrastination. The results of this study elucidate the experience of academic procrastination in students and highlight the role of academic hardiness and personal standards perfectionism. Implications for educators and psychologists are discussed.     

青少年时间态度与学业拖延的关系：成就动机的中介作用

采用青少年时间态度量表、成就动机量表和学业拖延问卷,对 733名中学生进行调查,旨在探究时间态度与学业拖延的关系,揭示成就动机在时间态度与学业拖延之间的中介作用机制。结果发现（1）过去消极、现在消极和未来消极与学业拖延呈显著正相关,过去积极、现在积极和未来积极与学业拖延呈显著负相关。（2）过去消极、现在消极和未来消极与成就动机呈显著负相关,过去积极、现在积极和未来积极与成就动机呈显著正相关;成就动机与学业拖延呈显著负相关。（3）成就动机在现在消极与学业拖延之间起部分中介作用,在未来积极、未来消极与学业拖延之间起完全中介作用。     

网络教学情境下正念对学业拖延的影响：心理韧性和自我控制的链式中介作用

本研究以157名大学生为对象,选用正念五因素量表、心理韧性量表、自我控制量表和Aitken拖延量表,探索在网络教学情境下正念对学业拖延的作用机制。结果表明：正念能够直接对网络教学情境下的大学生学业拖延产生影响,也能够通过心理韧性和自我控制的链式中介作用对大学生学业拖延产生影响。研究结论为发挥正念的作用,改善网络教学情境下的学业拖延提供了参考。     

Writing apprehension and academic procrastination among graduate students

Academic procrastination has been associated with both fear of failure and task aversiveness. Researchers have reported that most undergraduate and graduate students delay academic tasks. Among the latter, a large proportion report procrastination in writing term papers. Such procrastination may originate from and lead to anxiety about writing so the present purpose was to investigate the relationship between scores on Daly and Miller's 1975 Writing Apprehension Test and on the two dimensions, i.e., fear of failure and task aversiveness, of Solomon and Rothblum's 1984 Procrastination Assessment Scale-Students. Participants were 135 graduate students of varied disciplinary backgrounds. Correlations between writing apprehension and academic procrastination stemmed from fear of failure (29) and task aversiveness (.41). Implications are discussed.     

大学生认识论信念、自我调节学习与学业拖延的联系:有调节的中介模型

为探讨认识论信念、自我调节学习与学业拖延不同维度之间的作用机制及年级的调节作用，采用分层抽样，对山东省两所大学的1096名一至四年级大学生进行问卷测查。结果发现，自我调节学习在认识论信念与学业拖延程度之间起完全中介作用，在认识论信念与学业拖延问题/学业拖延降低期望之间起部分中介作用。较高的认识论信念有利于培养学生的自我调节学习能力，降低学业拖延程度，较少受学业拖延问题的困扰。并且随着年级的升高，认识论信念的积极作用倾向于降低。结论：年级因素在“认识论信念→自我调节学习→学业拖延”中的调节作用机制对于教学实践具有重要意义。     

Procrastination in Different Life-Domains: Is Procrastination Domain Specific?

Procrastination, putting off until tomorrow what one had intended to do today, is a well-known phenomenon in everyday life. In an attempt to understand the character of procrastination, a large body of research has been accumulating over the last 40 years. The present study was to evaluate the need to distinguish between procrastination in different life-domains by gathering first hints as to whether procrastination is domain specific or domain general. In an online survey on 260 students (mean age?=?23.56; SD?=?3.74) the procrastination frequency in 6 different life-domains (academic and work, everyday routines and obligations, health, leisure, family and partnership, social contacts) was examined. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and the analysis of mean-level differences revealed that procrastination is domain specific, but not extremely so. The results encourage further investigations into the domain specificity of procrastination and suggest that future diagnoses of and interventions for procrastination will profit from considering the life-domain procrastination occurs in.     

An exploration into the influence of academic and social values, procrastination, and perceived school belongingness on academic performance

The results of a structural equation model showed that a tendency to procrastinate, assessed early in college students’ first term, was positively related to social values, assessed as concerns over social exclusion, but was negatively related to academic task values and grade goal-setting. The results suggest that procrastination may be a partial mediator of the influence of academic and social values on perceived school belongingness. In addition, the tendency to procrastinate had a direct negative relationship with self-regulatory self-efficacy and perceived school belongingness and was positively related to perceived stress near the end of the term. There was also a statistically significant negative total effect of procrastination on performance-approach and mastery-approach goal orientation and end-of-term grade point average (GPA). Statistically significant positive total effects of performance-approach and mastery-approach achievement goal orientations on GPA were found. However, while a statistically significant direct positive effect of performance-approach orientation on GPA was found, a direct relationship between mastery-approach orientation and GPA was not statistically significant.     

Procrastination and predictor variables among a group of dental students in Turkey

The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of procrastination among a group of Turkish dental students and to determine the predictors and consequences of procrastination. A total number of 273 females and 179 males (aged between 18 and 28) were included in the study. Tuckman procrastination scale, Academic Life Satisfaction Scale, Concern over Mistake Scale, Poor Time Management Scale, Self-Doubt Scale, Irrational Beliefs about Studying Scale, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule and Life Satisfaction Scale were used to gather data. Results indicated that 50% of participants were more likely to procrastinate their academic assignments or tasks. Procrastination score did not differ according to gender. The findings suggested that procrastinating students had a higher level of poor time management, self-doubt and irrational beliefs about studying, and poor academic performance and well-being than their non-procrastinating counterparts. Preventive strategies are necessary to overcome procrastination which affects the academic achievement, satisfaction, and well-being of dental students.     

大学生学习拖延研究综述

学习拖延是指有目的地推迟必须完成的学习任务的行为。学习者的个性特质、角色冲突、自我调节能力不足以及学习任务特征,是导致大学生学习拖延的重要因素。当前对大学生学习拖延的测评主要采用自陈式量表,对学习拖延的干预主要采用认知-行为咨询法。强化实验研究、探讨综合性理论框架是该研究领域的重要发展方向。     

Personality correlates of decisional and task avoidant procrastination

Newly constructed scales of decisional procrastination were validated as a precondition for assessing similarities and differences between decisional and task avoidant procrastination. The two behavioral dispositions and their concomitant affective reactions (tension during decision making and discomfort about postponing tasks, respectively) were found to be independent. Each disposition was general rather than specific with a high inter‐correlation of indecisiveness on matters of minor as well as major importance and a high inter‐correlation of postponing life routines as well as postponing academic assignments. Two of the five Costa–McCrae personality factors accounted for most of the explained variance in the two kinds of procrastination, Neuroticism for decisional procrastination and Conscientiousness for task avoidance procrastination, respectively. These findings were consistent with theoretical formulations by Lazarus (Appraisal–Anxiety–Avoidance Model) and Kuhl (Action Control Theory). Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The mystery of “should”: Procrastination,delay, and reactance in academic settings

The study explores the effect of trait reactance on procrastination and delay in students of two study programmes differing in the structuring of academic tasks and the role they play in course assessment. Both subsamples (n = 97 and 139) completed measures of trait reactance, chronic academic procrastination, self-reported task procrastination and actual task delay. The data were analyzed using path analysis and SEM. As hypothesized, psychological reactance positively predicted procrastination, especially the ‘chronic delay’ component underlying all three procrastination-related measures. However, some of the effect of reactance on this delay-dependent component of procrastination was apparently suppressed by what might have been a subjective (delay-independent) component of self-reported task procrastination. Furthermore, reactance was significantly related to delay only when good performance on the task was of relatively high importance. Apart from providing evidence for a possible link between reactance and procrastination, the results also demonstrate that it is important to distinguish between the experiential and objective (temporal) components of procrastination, as the two might be represented by completely different nomological networks.     

先前学业成就与学习动机、策略的关系:学业情绪的中介作用

采用整群抽样法抽取高中生670名,分别用学业情绪问卷、学习动机问卷和学习策略问卷来探讨学业情绪在先前学业成就与学习动机、学习策略之间的中介作用。以学业情绪的控制-价值理论和认知-动机模型为基础,运用偏差矫正百分位的非参数Bootstrap法对学业情绪的中介作用进行检验,结果发现:积极学业情绪在先前学业成就与学习策略、学习动机间起完全中介效应;消极学业情绪在先前学业成就与学习策略、学习动机间起部分中介效应。     

家庭环境和教师支持对中学生学业拖延的影响：基本心理需求满足与心理资本的链式中介作用

为探讨家庭环境和教师支持对中学生学业拖延的影响机制,采用中学生家庭环境问卷、学生感知教师支持行为问卷、基本心理需求量表、积极心理资本问卷和中学生学业拖延问卷对740名中学生进行调查。结果显示：家庭环境、教师支持和心理资本均对学业拖延有显著影响;家庭环境和教师支持对学业拖延的影响力相当,而个体心理资本的影响力更大;家庭环境和教师支持还能通过基本心理需求满足与心理资本的部分链式中介作用来影响学业拖延。     

Reading Ability as a Predictor of Academic Procrastination Among African American Graduate Students

The present study examined the relationship between reading ability (i.e., reading comprehension and reading vocabulary) and academic procrastination among 120 African American graduate students. A canonical correlation analysis revealed statistically significant and practically significant multivariate relationships between these two reading ability variables and graduate students' levels of academic procrastination. Specifically, the first canonical correlation analysis revealed a statistically significant and practically significant multivariate relationship between reading ability and academic procrastination resulting from fear of failure. The second canonical correlation analysis revealed a statistically significant and practically significant multivariate relationship between reading ability and academic procrastination associated with writing a term paper, performing administrative tasks, attending meetings, keeping up with weekly reading assignments, and, most notably, performing academic tasks. Implications are discussed in the context of designing and implementing strategies designed to improve African American student performance and instruction in graduate-level courses.     

大学生完美主义、自尊与学业拖延的关系

采用问卷法调查了311名大学生学业拖延与完美主义和自尊的关系,特别考察了自尊在完美主义与学业拖延关系间的中介作用。研究结果表明:(1) 学业拖延与消极完美主义显著正相关,与积极完美主义显著负相关,与自尊显著负相关;自尊与消极完美主义显著负相关,与积极完美主义显著正相关。(2) 消极完美主义显著正向预测学业拖延,积极完美主义和自尊显著负向预测学业拖延。(3) 自尊在积极、消极完美主义与学业拖延关系间起部分中介作用。     

The Complexity of the Relation between Fear of Failure and Procrastination

This study investigated the indirect and conditional relation between fear of failure and procrastination based on constructs from self-determination theory. Using structural equation modeling to analyze data from 300 university students, we found that the relation between fear of failure and procrastination was moderated by perceived competence. The relation was positively significant for students with low levels of competence and negatively significant for those with high level of competence. However, in the latter group, fear of failure negatively affected satisfaction of the need for autonomy, which in turn increased the likelihood of problematic delay on academic and everyday-life tasks. The results are discussed in relation to the complex interplay of motivational variables related to self-regulatory failure.     

Role conflict and academic procrastination: A self‐determination perspective

The purpose of the present study was to propose and test a model of role conflict and academic procrastination. This model posits that non‐self‐determined motivations toward school and interpersonal relationships are positively related to role conflict between these two life domains. In turn, role conflict between school and interpersonal relationships is expected to be positively related to academic procrastination. Participants were 292 university students. Results from structural equation modeling supported the model. It thus appears that self‐determination and role conflict are important to foster our understanding of academic procrastination. Theoretical implications of the findings are discussed. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Procrastinators and fear of failure: an exploration of reasons for procrastination

Procrastination, the act or tendency of putting things off that should be done today until tomorrow, has recently become a field of interest in the study of academic underachievement. In constructing tests for the measurement of procrastination, and in comparing test scores with self-attributions of reasons for procrastination, an unexpected discrepancy has been observed between fear of failure as a prominent reason for procrastination and test fear of failure being unrelated to procrastination. This study was meant to clarify this discrepancy. Students who procrastinate generally endorse many reasons for procrastination simultaneously. For some relatively homogeneous groups of students fear of failure is one of these reasons. Other groups of students do not attribute procrastination to fear of failure at all. For the sample as a whole, procrastination and fear of failure appear unrelated. However, trait procrastination and fear of failure may interact and result in increased levels of actualprocrastinatory behaviour.     

Causal relationships among academic delay of gratification, motivation, and self-regulated learning in elementary school children

Academic delay of gratification refers to the postponement of immediate rewards by students and the pursuit of more important, temporally remote academic goals. A path model was designed to identify the causal relationships among academic delay of gratification and motivation, self-regulated learning strategies (as specified in the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire), and grades among 386 Chinese elementary school children. Academic delay of gratification was found to be positively related to motivation and metacognition. Cognitive strategy, resource management, and grades mediated these two factors and were indirectly related to academic delay of gratification.     

Correlates of academic procrastination

Concurrent correlates of academic procrastination were investigated in Israeli college preparatory students (N = 113). Procrastination in one course of study was found to be moderately correlated with procrastination in another, but not to procrastination in the routine tasks of daily living. Evidence for the validity of self-report procrastination scales was the moderate correlation with instructors' ratings. Procrastination was weakly related to emotional upset about it and moderately related to the endorsement of reasons for it—students high in procrastination and emotional upset gave higher reason endorsements (i.e., cited suggested reasons as more reflective of the causes of their procrastination) than the others. Reasons that were judged a priori as less threatening to one's self-esteem received higher endorsements than threatening ones. Contrary to prediction, reasons considered nonthreatening to one's self-esteem were as strongly related to emotional upset and to procrastination as threatening reasons. That students vary in emotional upset about procrastination and in the reasons they give for it highlights the need for comprehensive assessment of students in planning and implementing treatment programs.