Re-imagining motor imagery: building bridges between cognitive neuroscience and sport psychology

One of the most remarkable capacities of the mind is its ability to simulate sensations, actions, and other types of experience. A mental simulation process that has attracted recent attention from cognitive neuroscientists and sport psychologists is motor imagery or the mental rehearsal of actions without engaging in the actual physical movements involved. Research on motor imagery is important in psychology because it provides an empirical window on consciousness and movement planning, rectifies a relative neglect of non-visual types of mental imagery, and has practical implications for skill learning and skilled performance in special populations (e.g., athletes, surgeons). Unfortunately, contemporary research on motor imagery is hampered by a variety of semantic, conceptual, and methodological issues that prevent cross-fertilization of ideas between cognitive neuroscience and sport psychology. In this paper, we review these issues, suggest how they can be resolved, and sketch some potentially fruitful new directions for inter-disciplinary research in motor imagery.     

Effects of imagery training on cognitive performance and use of physiological measures as an assessment tool of mental effort

The effectiveness of motor imagery training on cognitive performance was examined and the physiological mechanisms involved in the contribution of mental practice to motor learning were considered. The subject's mental effort during motor imagery was assessed by using psychophysiological measures and particularly eye blink activity as an 'indirect' measurement of subjects' attention. An electronic flight simulation program (Multiple Attribute Task Battery--MATB) was used to assess performance. Twenty healthy volunteers participated in the study divided in two groups: the control group and the imagery-training group. The subjects of the imagery group were asked for additional imagery training. The subjects of the actual performing group were asked additionally to passively observe the task in order to have equal time of exposure to the task. Performance scores and physiological parameters such as heart rate, respiratory rate, eye blinking activity and muscular activity were recorded during all sessions. The results revealed significantly higher performance level of the imagery-training group than the control group. Heart rate and respiratory rate significantly increased during imagery sessions compared to rest. A slight electromyographic activity was observed during the imagination of movement. Our findings support the notion that mental practice improves motor performance in a task where spatiotemporal or dynamic control of the action is highly required. The effects of mental practice on motor performance could be explained by the existence of a top-down mechanism based on the activation of a central representation of the movements, since the vegetative activation during motor imagery seems to be centrally controlled.     

Differentiating visual and kinesthetic imagery in mental practice.

Through two experiments, the study sought to emphasize the usefulness of the visual and kinesthetic imagery in mental practice. In Experiment 1, it was hypothesized that when the task to be learned through mental practice necessitates the reproduction of a form by drawing, the visual image, which provides a wide span of apprehension, is more suitable than the kinesthetic image. On the other hand, the kinesthetic image that supplies inputs from the muscles' positions and movements should be more appropriate for the acquisition of the duration of the drawing. In Experiment 2, it was hypothesized that the task, transformed into a motor task necessitating minute coordination of the two hands, would benefit more from kinesthetic imagery. To have optimal control over what was actually experienced during mental practice, the participants' imagery skills were measured. The participants also benefited from prior imagery training. The results demonstrate that when using mental practice to initially acquire a task, visual imagery is better for tasks that emphasize form while kinesthetic imagery is better for those tasks that emphasize timing or minute coordination of the two hands.     

Cognitive psychology in sport: Progress and prospects

ProblemThere has been a recent upsurge of research interest in cognitive sport psychology or the scientific study of mental processes (e.g., mental imagery) in athletes. Despite this interest, an important question has been neglected. Specifically, is research on cognitive processes in athletes influential outside sport psychology, in the “parent” field of cognitive psychology or in the newer discipline of cognitive neuroscience?ObjectivesThe purpose of this paper is to explore the theoretical significance of research on expertise, attention and mental imagery in athletes from the perspective of cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience.MethodFollowing analysis of recent paradigm shifts in cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience, a narrative review is provided of key studies on expertise, attention and mental imagery in athletes.Results and conclusionsThis paper shows that cognitive sport psychology has contributed significantly to theoretical understanding of certain mental processes studied in cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience. It also shows that neuroscientific research on motor imagery can benefit from increased collaboration with cognitive sport psychology. Overall, I conclude that the domain of sport offers cognitive researchers a rich and dynamic natural laboratory in which to study how the mind works.     

Training with computer-supported motor imagery in post-stroke rehabilitation.

Converging lines of evidence suggest that motor imagery (the mental simulation of a motor act within working memory) is associated with subliminal activation of the motor system. This observation has led to the hypothesis that cortical activation during motor imagery may affect the acquisition of specific motor skills and help the recovery of motor function. In this paper, we describe a clinical protocol in which we use interactive tools to stimulate motor imagery in hemiplegic stroke patients, thereby helping them to recover lost motor function. The protocol consists of an inpatient and an outpatient phase, combining physical and mental practice. In the inpatient phase, patients are trained in a laboratory setting, using a custom-made interactive workbench (VR Mirror). After discharge, patients use a portable device to guide mental and physical practice in a home setting. The proposed strategy is based on the hypotheses that: (a) combined physical and mental practice can make a cost-effective contribution to the rehabilitation of stroke patients, (b) effective mental practice is not possible without some form of support, from a therapist (as in our inpatient phase) or from technology (as in the outpatient phase), (c) the inclusion of an outpatient phase will allow the patient to practice more often than would otherwise be possible, therefore increasing the speed and/or effectiveness of learning, and (d) the use of interactive technology will reduce the patient's need for skilled support, therefore improving the cost-effectiveness of training.     

运动性心理疲劳问题的研究现状

通过对运动性心理疲劳概念和检测评价方法等问题的国内外研究现状及其局限性和不足进行的综述讨论,作者分析指出目前关于运动性心理疲劳问题的有关研究成果满足不了中国训练体系下训练实践的需要,提出有必要系统进行运动性心理疲劳问题的实证研究。就心理疲劳问题的研究方向和研究切入点,作者认为应综合开展运动性心理疲劳神经生理与心理机制的探索性研究。研究的主要切入点包括：（1）研究建立适合中国运动训练体制与环境的运动性心理疲劳概念,构建运动性心理疲劳概念模型;（2）基于此模型研究建立多维检测评价方法系统和运动性心理疲劳问卷。研究过程中要将神经生理方法与心理测量、行为观察等方法结合起来同步测量,在训练过程中开展纵向追踪与横向调查综合性的实证研究     

How motor practice shapes memory: retrieval but not extra study can cause forgetting

We investigated the retrieval specificity of retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF) of motor sequences. In two experiments, participants learned sequential finger movements, each consisting of the movement of two fingers of either the left or the right hand. In the learning phase, these motor sequences were graphically presented and were to be learned as responses to simultaneously presented letter stimuli. Subsequently, participants selectively practiced half the items of one hand. A final recall test then assessed memory for all initially learned items. We contrasted different kinds of selective practice with each other. Whereas retrieval practice required retrieving motor sequences in response to letter stimuli from the learning phase, extra study was an extension of the learning phase, that is, participants performed motor sequences in response to the same animation graphic display as in the learning phase again accompanied by the letter stimulus. All practice conditions strengthened the practiced items, but only retrieval practice resulted in RIF. Thus, the strengthening of items through practice did not suffice to induce forgetting of related motor sequences. Retrieval was a necessary component for practice to shape memory for body movements by impairing the subsequent recall of motor sequences that were related to the practiced motor sequences.     

The cognitive structure of movements in classical dance

AimsThis study was designed to elicit differences in the mental representations of two basic movements from classical ballet, the Pirouette en dehors and the Pas assemblé, stored in long-term memory of dancers of different skill-levels.MethodThe movements were demonstrated and explained verbally to professional ballet dancers, amateur dancers, and non-dancers. Subsequently, participants were assigned to a hierarchical sorting (splitting) task in which Basic Action Concepts (BACs) of the movements had to be sorted according to their functional relevance in movement execution. The task was presented as verbal labels on a computer screen. The responses were subjected to the application of a new analytical method, called SDA-M, which includes a hierarchical cluster analysis. The method enabled eliciting cognitive structures of the movements in the participants' long-term memory, and thus enabled comparing these cognitive structures in subjects of different skill-level.ResultsParticipants of different skill-level showed movement-specific differences in their mental representation structures in long-term memory. A similar structure was noted in advanced amateurs and professionals for the Pirouette en dehors, which referred to the functional phases of the movement, and less functional representations were noted in beginners and novices. For the Pas assemblé, the experts' representation structure was different from that of amateurs and novices, pointing toward differences in movement execution. It is concluded that movement representations of this kind in long-term memory might provide the basis for motor control in skilled ballet movements in the form of suitably organized perceptual-cognitive reference structures.ImplicationsThe results point toward a unique mental representation as a function of skill-level and movement nature. Individual and group results obtained with the applied method can be implemented to support (mental) training methods in classical dance practice.     

The role of movement speed in learning a visuo-manual coordination in children

Summary The aim of the present study was to investigate the processes underlying aiming movements (motor programming and feedback control), and to explore their modification through learning. Two groups of 6- and 9-year-old children were asked to perform a directional aiming task without visual feedback (open-loop situation). After 15 trials (pretest) all subjects were submitted to a practice session which consisted of three series of trials with visual feedback (closed-loop situation). Half of the subjects had to perform the task at maximum speed (programmed movements), while the other half was required to perform slow movements (feedback-controlled movements). After the practice session all subjects were tested again in the openloop situation without time constraints (posttest). The results showed that during the practice session, accuracy was greater than in the two test conditions. It was greater in the case of slow movements than in the case of rapid ones. Moreover, in the case of rapid movements, it did not improve over the three practice series, while it did improve with slow movements. The difference between pre- and posttests showed that both groups improved their accuracy with practice in all conditions, the greatest improvement being obtained with rapid practice movements in 9-year-old children. It is suggested that different types of feedback (on-line and delayed feedback) contribute in varying degrees to the improvement of the aiming movements. However, the rapid movement condition, which requires a greater efficiency of programming, was found to be more effective for learning than the slow movement condition. The age-related differences found in learning suggest that feedback information can be fully integrated into motor programming only after 6 years of age.     

Selective effects of motor expertise in mental body rotation tasks: comparing object-based and perspective transformations

Brain imaging studies provide strong evidence for the involvement of the human mirror system during the observation of complex movements, depending on the individual's motor expertise. Here, we ask the question whether motor expertise not only affects perception while observing movements, but also benefits perception while solving mental rotation tasks. Specifically, motor expertise should only influence the performance in mental body rotation tasks (MBRT) with left-right judgment, evoking a perspective transformation, whereas motor expertise should not affect the MBRT with same-different judgment, evoking an object-related transformation. Participants with and without motor expertise for rotational movements were tested in these two conditions in the MBRT. Results showed that motor experience selectively affected performance in the MBRT with the left-right judgment, but not with same-different judgment. More precisely, motor expertise only benefited performance when human figures were presented in (for non-experts) unfamiliar, upside-down body orientations.     

Mental imagery combined with physical practice of approach shots for golf beginners

Recent research on motor skills of golf have pointed to the usefulness of mental imagery. In golf, such training is rarely used as a teaching technique for beginners on the grounds that only top professionals stand to gain from mental imagery. This study tested whether mental imagery combined with physical practice can improve golf performance for the approach shot. 23 volunteer beginners, 8 women and 15 men, M age 23.4 yr. (SD = 3.7), enrolled in the University Physical and Sporting Activities Department, were divided into three groups, using a combination of physical practice of the approach shot plus mental imagery, physical practice only, and a third group engaging in various sporting activities instead of either mental or physical practice of the chip shot. Analysis showed that the beginners' approach shot performance improved most in the group combining physical practice and mental imagery when compared with the group just physically practising the approach shot. It seems mental training can be used effectively to improve performance even with beginners.     

值得运动心理学家探索的6个问题

长期以来,运动心理学在竞技运动领域面对的6个问题包括：1）哪些心理学指标可以标志和预测训练型和比赛型运动员？2）如何界定、监测和控制长时期大运动量训练和比赛中的心理疲劳？3）达到最佳竞技状态的必要心理条件是什么？4）运动员最佳竞技状态时大脑的工作情况有哪些特征？ 5）运动员精英与其他领域精英的自我发展有何异同？6）有运动智力吗？从理论和实践两个方面对这6个问题进行了分析,提出了解决这些问题的思路。同时指出,对这些问题的探索将有助于运动心理学为母科学心理学的发展做出贡献。     

Conceptual and motor learning in music performance

Are the mental plans for action abstract or specified in terms of the movements with which they are produced? We report motor independence for expert music performance but not for novice performance in a transfer-of-learning task. Skilled adult pianists practiced musical pieces and transferred to new pieces with the same or different motor (hand and finger) requirements and conceptual (melodic) relations. Greatest transfer in sequence duration was observed when the same conceptual relations were retained from training to transfer, regardless of motor movements. In a second experiment, novice child pianists performed the same task. More experienced child pianists showed transfer on both the motor and the conceptual dimensions; the least experienced child pianists demonstrated transfer only to sequences with identical motor and conceptual dimensions. These findings suggest that mental plans for action become independent of the required movements only at advanced skill levels.     

Does mental practice still enhance performance? A 24 Year follow-up and meta-analytic replication and extension

ObjectivesMotor imagery (MI) is a dynamic mental state during which the representation of a given motor movement is rehearsed in working memory without overt motor output. Mental practice (MP; also known as motor imagery practice) is the systematic application of MI for the cognitive rehearsal of a task in the absence of overt physical movements. Although MP is known to enhance skilled performance, debate still exists about the magnitude and moderators of these imagery effects. Against this background, and amid concerns about the “reproducibility crisis” in psychology, it seems timely to revisit, update and extend a key meta-analysis of MP effects published over two decades ago – namely, that of Driskell, Copper, and Moran (1994). To this end, the present paper reports a methodological replication of the Driskell et al’s (1994) meta-analysis of MP effects.Design & methodIncluded are 37 studies on MP effects published between 1995 and 2018. Nine factors were selected to examine the extent to which they moderate the effectiveness of mental practice, providing a window into the conditions under which mental practice is most effectively implemented. Practice Type (Mental or Physical), Expertise, Duration of practice (both program and session), Task Type, and Control Type were retained as factors of interest from the original Driskell et al. (1994) meta-analysis. In order to further explore the nuance of mental practice implementation, we additionally examined the Imagery Type, the Performance Measure used, Activity Type (team versus individual activities) and the Setting of the intervention.ResultsFollowing publication bias analyses, our results confirm that overall, MP has a small but significant positive effect on performance (r = 0.131). Moderators of this beneficial effect were MP duration, type of task and type of imagery used.ConclusionsWe conclude that MP has an enduring positive influence on performance.     

How to Think about ‘Mental Ability’ in Running and Other Sports

ABSTRACT

Coaches and athletes often talk about ‘mental abilities’ that improve athletic performance in a way distinct from physical talents. But the existence of distinct mental abilities in sport is prima facie implausible since (dualists aside) all mental states are physical states of the brain, and all physical bodily movements are the results of mental guidance. Yet it still seems useful and important to talk about a distinctly ‘mental’ aspect of athletic performance. In this paper, I try to clarify what a distinctly mental realm of sports would be and discuss how we can talk about it in ways that can help athletes improve.     

Relation between sport and spatial imagery: comparison of three groups of participants

The literature suggests that sport may be considered a spatial activity and that engaging in spatial activities increases the capacity of an individual to implement mental imagery. Moreover, mental rotation calls upon motor processes that are heavily involved in sporting activities. For these reasons, the authors hypothesized that athletes ought to perform mental rotation tasks better than nonathletes. Also, athletes trained to react quickly to constantly changing environments should be faster at processing the information in a mental rotation task than athletes operating in more settled environments. The results of this study show that athletes performed the mental rotation task significantly faster than nonathletes. These results support the suggestion that there is a link between sport and the ability to perform mental image transformations; however, this ability may not be specific to the conditions in which the athlete performs.     

Retroactive interference and mental practice effects on motor performance: a pilot study

This study examined the effect of similar versus dissimilar retroactive interference on the mental practice effects for performing a novel motor skill. Research has shown that mental practice of a motor task can interfere with learning and performance of the task; however, little is known about how different retroactive interference activities affect mental practice effects. 90 volunteers ages 18 to 51 years (M=26.8, SD=9.6) completed a pre-test and post-test of 10 sets of five trials of a throwing task with the non-preferred hand. In the practice phase, participants mentally practiced the throwing task and then mentally practiced a task that was similar, dissimilar, or completed an unrelated reading task. Performance for all groups improved from pre- to post-test; however, there were no differences in increases for the three groups. The findings suggest that mental practice of similar and dissimilar tasks produced no significant interference in performance.     

When music tempo affects the temporal congruence between physical practice and motor imagery

When people listen to music, they hear beat and a metrical structure in the rhythm; these perceived patterns enable coordination with the music. A clear correspondence between the tempo of actual movement (e.g., walking) and that of music has been demonstrated, but whether similar coordination occurs during motor imagery is unknown. Twenty participants walked naturally for 8 m, either physically or mentally, while listening to slow and fast music, or not listening to anything at all (control condition). Executed and imagined walking times were recorded to assess the temporal congruence between physical practice (PP) and motor imagery (MI). Results showed a difference when comparing slow and fast time conditions, but each of these durations did not differ from soundless condition times, hence showing that body movement may not necessarily change in order to synchronize with music. However, the main finding revealed that the ability to achieve temporal congruence between PP and MI times was altered when listening to either slow or fast music. These data suggest that when physical movement is modulated with respect to the musical tempo, the MI efficacy of the corresponding movement may be affected by the rhythm of the music. Practical applications in sport are discussed as athletes frequently listen to music before competing while they mentally practice their movements to be performed.     

Dynamic locomotor imagery in athletes with severe visual impairments

Motor imagery is a mental process not accompanied by movement and widely studied in healthy subjects, related to hand movements in terms of timing. This study compared static and dynamic motor imagery analyzing temporal and spatial features in different locomotor conditions in three different groups of subjects: high-skilled athletes with visual impairments, a group of sighted unprofessional athletes and a control group of sighted subjects. We found that dynamic motor imagery resulted in timely closer to real performance than static motor imagery. The discrepancies between dynamic motor imagery and real condition, in fact, resulted limited to uncommon locomotion, such as lateral walking. Motor imagery resulted closer to real performance in terms of timing than in terms of step length, with the exception of athletes with visual impairments that, differently from the other groups, did not show any significant differences between the numbers of imagined and performed steps. It opens a new question about the relationship between temporal and spatial imagination of locomotion.     

“Pushing the Button While Pushing the Argument”: Motor Priming of Abstract Action Language

In a behavioral study we analyzed the influence of visual action primes on abstract action sentence processing. We thereby aimed at investigating mental motor involvement during processes of meaning constitution of action verbs in abstract contexts. In the first experiment, participants executed either congruous or incongruous movements parallel to a video prime. In the second experiment, we added a no‐movement condition. After the execution of the movement, participants rendered a sensibility judgment on action sentence targets. It was expected that congruous movements would facilitate both concrete and abstract action sentence comprehension in comparison to the incongruous and the no‐movement condition. Results in Experiment 1 showed a concreteness effect but no effect of motor priming. Experiment 2 revealed a concreteness effect as well as an interaction effect of the sentence and the movement condition. The findings indicate an involvement of motor processes in abstract action language processing on a behavioral level.